Contemporary Psychological Research on Terrorism

1. CONTEMPORARY
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON
TERRORISM
Presenter: Syed Altaf Hussain
Guide: Ms Th Shivata
1

2. Contents:
 Introduction
 Concept of Terrorism
 Definition of Terrorism
 Types of Terrorism
 Categories of Terrorist Groups
 Psychological Impact of Terrorist Attack
 Psychological Explanation for Terrorism
 First Generation Research
 Contemporary Psychological Research on
Terrorism
 Limitation of Psychological Research on Terrorism
 Conclusion
2

3. Introduction
Terrorism is one of the biggest challenge and
threat the peaceful world has ever seen. Task of
preventing terrorism requires comprehension of
causes behind terrorism or terrorist activity. We
hope to identify what the psychology of terrorism
says and why contemporary psychological research
is needed.
3

4. “If we are to defeat terrorism, it is our duty, and
indeed our interest, to try to understand this
deadly phenomenon, and carefully to examine
what works, what does not, in fighting it.”
(UN Secretary General, 2003)
4

5. Concept of Terrorism
Terrorism is a physical, psychological warfare and
the behavioral disturbances is the primary
intention of terrorist.
5

6. • Zealots, during 66-72 AD were Jewish resistance to
Roman occupation involved killing of Roman
soldiers and destruction of Roman property.
• Assasin during 1090-1275 resisted against
Crusader in middle east.
• French Revolution (coined) provided the first use
of the words (terrorisme in French) “Terrorist” and
“Terrorism” in 1795 in reference to the Reign of
Terror initiated by the Revolutionary government
and provided an example of future states in
oppressing their populations.
6

7. The word “Terrorism and “Terrorist” carry strong
negative connotations or negative publicity
objectively whereas subjectively they proclaim to
be:
 Separatist
 Freedom fighter
 Revolutionary
 Vigilante
 Militant
 Paramilitary
 Guerilla
 Rebel
 Patriot
7

8. “‘Terrorism’ should define the acts rather than
persons, because the labeling of people and groups
as terrorist is ambiguous, depending on the
perspective and affiliation of the person applying
the label: the same group of people may be called
terrorists by some and freedom fighters by others.”
Friedland (1988)
8

9. Genocide Vs Terrorism:
“If the aggression is directed at the persecution and
killing of entire groups for racial, political,
religious or other reasons, then it takes the form of
genocide.”
Staub (1989)
“Terrorists often cultivate an attitude of moral
superiority over their victims from which they
derive justification for their violent actions.”
Baumeister et al. (1996)
9

10. Some examples of terrorist groups:
 Irish Republican Army (IRA) of Ireland
 Red Army Faction in Germany (RAF)
 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
 Al-Qaida
10

11. Definitions of Terrorism:
“The calculated use of unlawful violence or threat
of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to
coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in
the pursuit of goals that are generally political,
religious or ideological.”
US DOD (2007)
Terrorist is one who terrorizes the general
population.
11

12. “Terrorism is the use or the threat of the use of
violence, a method of combat, or a strategy to
achieve certain targets. It aims to induce a state of
fear in the victim, that is ruthless and doesn’t
conform with humanitarian rules. Publicity is an
essential factor in the terrorist strategy.”
(Walter Laqueur, 1987)
“The use of violence to provoke consciousness, to
evoke certain feelings of sympathy and revulsions.”
(David Rapoport, 1977)
12

13. Types of Terrorism
Suicide Terrorism:
 A suicide attack is an operational method in which
the very act of the attack is dependent upon the
death of the perpetrator.
“A suicide attack is a newsworthy event for the
media, as it indicates a display of great
determination and inclination for self-sacrifice on
the part of the terrorists.”
Hoffman Bruce (2006)
13

14. Counter Terrorism: Counter terrorism is an
obligation of states and an integral part of the fight
against terrorism.
State Terrorism: State-sponsored terrorism is
government support of paramilitary organizations
engaged in terrorism
False Flag Terrorism: It is a covert military
operations designed to deceive in such a way that
the operations appear as though they are carried
out by other entities, groups or nations.
14

15.  Information Terrorism: A direct impact and
people’s consciousness, involving a violent
propaganda impact on the psyche, in order to
create necessary opinions and judgments, some
way guides behavior.
 Listen – Scarecrow: It’s a rumor, carrying and
causing negative, frightening mood and emotional
states, reflecting some actual, but unwanted
audience expectations, in which they arise and
spread.
15

16.  Economic Terrorism: At lower level, in the
competition among corporation, it can be to play
the fall in the value of shares of competitors, their
buying, bringing to the bankruptcy etc.,
 Social (Domestic) Terrorism: Daily harassment,
with which we are confronted in the street, at
home, rampant street crime, rising criminality,
general social instability and massive living
conditions.
16

17. Terrorism in latest form – Cyber-terrorism
“Cyber-terrorism is the convergence of terrorism
and cyberspace. It is generally understood to
mean unlawful attacks and threats against
computers, networks and information stored
therein when done to intimidate or coerce a
government or its people in furtherance of political
or social objective.”
(Denning, 2000)
17

18. Terrorist: A person, group, or organization that
uses violent action, or the threat of violent action,
to further political goals; frequently in an attempt
to coerce either a more powerful opponent, or
conversely, a weaker opponent.
18

19. Categories of Terrorist Groups
• Separatist
• Ethnocentric
• Nationalistic
• Revolutionary
• Political
• Religious
• Social
• Domestic
• International
19

20. Psychological Impact of Terrorism
 Acute Stress Disorder
 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
 Depression
 Anxiety
 Separation Anxiety Disorder
 Agoraphobia
 Phobic Disorders
 Bereavement
 Somatisation
Continue…
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21.  Irritability
 Dissociative Reactions
 Sleep Disturbances
 Diminished Self-Esteem
 Deterioration in School Performance
 Distress when Exposed to Traumatic Reminders
 Substance Abuse
Sadock et al (2012)
21

22. “About 5% of elementary schoolchildren reported
clinically significant levels of symptoms of PTSD,
1-year after Oklahoma City bombing.”
(Gurwitch et al, 2002)
“60% of parents in the New York City reported
that their children were moderate post-traumatic
stress reactions.”
(Fairbrother et al, 2003)
22

23. “In New York City, 6 months later Sept, 11 2011,
28.6% of children had at lead one probable anxiety
/ depressive disorder, the most common being
agoraphobia (14.8%), separation anxiety (12.3%)
and PTSD (10.6%).”
(Lengua et al, 2005)
23

24. “PTSD appears to be the most common disorder
attributable to the attack followed by depression.”
(North et al, 1999)
“PTSD is likely the most prevalent and debilitating
consequence of disasters in general and terrorism
in particular.”
(Galea, 2002)
24

25. Psychological Explanation for Terrorism
Instinct Theory: (Psychoanalytic)
“Sigmund Freud in dual instinct theory, proposed
that individual behavior is driven by two basic
forces:
• Eros, the life instinct (Life force)
• Thanatos, the death instinct (Death force)”
Freud (1920)25

26. • ‘Eros’ drives the person towards pleasure seeking
and wish fulfillment whereas ‘thanatos’ is directed
at self-destruction.
• Due to the antagonistic nature, the two instincts
are a source of sustained intra-psychic conflict,
which can be resolved only by diverting the
destructive forces away from the person onto
others.
• Freud consider releasing destructive energy
through non-aggressive expressive behavior (ex:
Jokes) but with only temporary effect, is catharsis.
26

27. Drive Theory: (Frustration-Aggression)
Cause of human violence is the basic premise of the
frustration-aggression (FA) hypothesis is twofold:
• Aggression is always produced by frustration
• Frustration always produced aggression
27

28. “It was only ‘aversive’ frustration that would lead
to aggression. Frustration leads to anger and
anger in the presence of aggressive cues, would
lead to aggression.”
Berkowitz (1989)
28

29. Social Learning Theory:
“If aggression is a learned behavior, then
terrorism, a specific type of aggressive behavior,
can also be learned.”
(Oots & Weigele, 1985)
29

30. “Aggression is explained as the result of a drive to
end a state of frustration, whereby frustration is
defined as external interference with the goal-
directed behavior of the person.”
(Dollard et at., 1939)
30

31. Cognitive Theory:
“According to cognitive theory, “The actions of
terrorists are based on the subjective
interpretation of the world rather than objective
reality. Perceptions of the political and social
environment are filtered through beliefs and
attitudes that reflect experiences and memories.”
(Crenshaw, 1988)
31

32. Biological Approach:
(i) Neurochemical Factors: “In the absence of
provocative stimuli, decreased Serotonin (5HT)
functioning may have little effect on the level of
aggressive behavior exhibition by humans.
• Compared to serotonin, the relationship between
both dopamine and norepinephrine and human
aggression is less clear”
(Berman et al, 1997)
32

33. (ii) Hormonal Factors: “There is not good
empirical evidence to support ‘testosterone
poisoning’ as a cause of disproportionate violence
in males.”
Benton (1992)
“Lower than average levels of arousal (Ex: Low
resting heart rate) and low reactivity are
consistently found in studies of people who engage
in aggressive and antisocial behavior.”
Raine, 1993, 1997
33

34. (i) Neuropsychological Factors: “Theoretical and
empirical evidence suggests that dysfunction or
impairment in the prefrontal cortex may be
responsible for the psycho-physiologic deficits
found in people who engage in antisocial and
aggressive behavior.”
(Raine, 1993, 1997)
34

35. Raw Empirical Approach:
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, an
environmental exposure, or an inborn or inherited
characteristic which on the basis of
epidemiological evidence is known to be associated
with health-related conditions considered
important to prevent.
35

36. “Rapid modernization and urbanization in the
form of high economic growth has also been found
to correlate strongly with the emergence of
ideological terrorism, but not with ethno-
nationalist terrorism.
Lack of opportunity for political participation,
Terrorist retaliations can thus occur as a result of
unusual and unexpected use of force by the
government, so-called “action-reaction syndrome”
(Crenshaw 1981)
36

37. FIRST GENERATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON
TERRORISM
 Terrorism was pathologized as the manifestations
of psychological and behavioral deviance, mainly
based on the psychoanalytic framework.
 Two themes were formulated:
• motives for terrorism are largely unconscious
and arise from hostility towards one’s parents
• Terrorism is the product of early abuse and
maltreatment
37

38. “One has, I think, to reckon with the fact that
there are present in all men destructive, and
therefore anti-social and anti-cultural, trends and
that in a great number of people these are strong
enough to determine their behavior in human
society.”
(Freud, 1927)
38

39. Narcissism:
The possible linkage between narcissism and
terrorism was first advanced by Morf in 1970:
• many first generation researchers attempted to
focus on narcissism as a defining and driving
factor.
• based on the premises that terrorist behavior was
rooted in a personality defect that produced a
damaged sense of self.
• the essence of pathological narcissism is an
overvaluing of self and devaluing of others and
these traits were seen among the terrorists.
39

40. According to Crayton (1983), the two key
narcissistic dynamics are grandiose sense of self
and “parental Image”
• i.e. if I can’t be perfect, at least I’m in a
relationship with something perfect.
• narcissistically vulnerable person are drawn to
charismatic leader and the same group is held
together by a grandiose sense of self.
• Further more, “Narcissistic rage” has been
regarded as the primary psychologically
precipitant of terrorist aggression.
40

41. “Sense of esteem is extraordinarily fragile, makes
the individual particularly vulnerable to any
slights, insults or ideas that threaten to shatter the
façade of self-worth. Such insults are known as
‘narcissistic injuries’ and are the triggers of
narcissistic rage”
(Akhtar, 1999)
41

42. For early psychological typologies Frederick
Hacker (1976) proposed as:
• Crusaders
• Criminals
• Crazies
42

43. Jerrold Post (1984) tried to explain terrorism as a
form of psychopathology or personality defect into
two different pattern:
• Anarchic-ideologue
• Nationalist-Secessionist
43

44. Contemporary Psychological Research
on Terrorism
(i) How and why do people entering and leave
terrorist organization
(ii) How Psychopathology relevant for under-
standing terrorism
(iii) How is individual personality and individual’s
life experiences relevant to understanding
and preventing terrorism
(iv) Role of ideology in terrorist behavior
(v) What are the Vulnerabilities for failures and
decline of terrorist groups
44

45. (i) People entering and leave terrorist
organization
Motives and vulnerabilities:
The motives to join a terrorist organization and
to engage in terrorism vary considerably across
different types of groups also within groups and
they may change over time.
45

46. Martha Crenshaw (1985) suggested that there are
at least four categories of motivation among
terrorists:
• The opportunity of action
• The need to belong
• The desire for social status and
• The acquisition of material reward
46

47. Horgan (2003) has frame the issues of
vulnerabilities as the “Factors that point to some
people having a greater openness to increased
engagement than others.” Based on the literature
review there are three motivational themes:
• Injustice
• Identity and
• Belonging
47

48. Pathways to radicalized and terrorism:
Frederick Hacker (1983) framed the path to join
terrorism as:
• First Stage:
• Second Stage:
• Third Stage:
48

49. PATHWAYS TO ENTER TERRORISM
 Bandura (1990) observed that the pathway to
terrorism can be shaped by fortuitous (accidental)
factors as well as the conjoint influence of personal
predilections and social inducement.
 But later, Horgan and Taylor (2001) stated that most
involvement in terrorism results from gradual
exposure and socialization towards extreme behavior.
49

50.  Eric Shaw (1986) reported that entering into
terrorists organization has a four stage process as:
• Early socialization process
• Narcissistic injuries
• Escalatory events
• Personal connections to terrorist group members
50

51. Borum (2003) describes the development of
extremist ideas and their justification of violence
as:
• It’s not right
• It’s not fair
• It’s your fault
• You’re evil
51

52. 52
The Process of Ideological Development
It’s Not It’s Not It’s Your You’re
Right Fair Fault Evil
Generalizing/
Stereotyping
Social and Inequality and
Economic Resentment Blame/Attribute
Deprivation
Dehumanizing /
Demonizing the
Enemy (Cause)
Context Comparison Attribution Reaction

53. (ii) How Psychopathology is relevant for
Understanding terrorism?
• Earlier it was assumed that terrorist in one way
or the other are not normal and that insights
from psychology and psychiatry are adequate
keys to understand. However Crenshaw (1992)
has discredited the the idea of terrorism as the
product of mental disorder or psychopathology.
53

54. Major Mental Illness and Maladaptive
personality traits:
• “it is difficult to study the prevalence of
psychopathology and maladaptive traits in
terrorist population.
• however research that does exists is fairly in
consistent in finding that serious
psychopathology or mental illness among
terrorist are relatively rare and certainly not in
understanding or predicting terrorist behavior .”
(McCauley,2002 and Sagement, 2004).
54

55.  “Terrorist are not dysfunctional or pathological,
rather terrorism is basically another form of
politically motivated violence that is perpetrated
by rational, lucid people who have valid motives.”
(Ruby, 2002)
 Terrorism is regarded as a form of antisocial
behavior. However they cannot be generalized as
having Anti-Social personality disorder.
55

56.  Martens (2004) acknowledge that not all terrorist
have ASPD, but individual who become terrorist
share some characteristic with person having
ASPD like: social alienation, aggressive action
oriented, stimulus hungry, confrontation with
police, etc
 “Psychopaths lack many qualities which are
required in terrorism.”
(Cooper, 1978)
56

57. Suicide Attacks:
• People usually associate suicide with hopelessness,
depression, the desire to end intense and
unbearable psychological pain and is usually
associated with mood disorder or schizophrenia,
substance abuse or history of attempted suicide.
• However Silke (2003) argues that there is no
indication that suicide bombers suffer from
psychological disorders or are mentally unbalance
in other way. In contrast their personality are quite
stable and unremarkable.
57

58. Ariel Merari found that there is no correlation
between suicidal dynamics and Mental pathology
in Suicide Bombers.
“Suicide attackers view their act as one of
martyrdom, whether for their faith, their people or
their cause. They see themselves as having a
higher purpose and are convinced of an external
reward through their actions.”
(Salib, 2003)
58

59. (iii) How is Individual’s personality and life
experiences relevant for understanding and
preventing terrorism:
Terrorist Personality and Profile:
• Attempts were made to study the possible existence
of Terrorist personality and profiling to
understand their behavior , however it has proved
to be futile or pointless, since
• It is difficult to generalize
• Their roles varies
• It may overlap with the general population who
will not commit terrorist act59

60. - Childhood and Adult experiences
Just as there is no single terrorist personality
or profile, a specific life experiences is neither
necessary nor sufficient to cause terrorism.
Contemporary literature found 3-themes for
the causal explanation of terrorism:
• Injustice
• Abuse and
• Humiliation
60

61. (iv) Role of Ideology in terrorist behavior
 Ideologies are rules that are linked to one’s beliefs,
values, principles and goals. Many religions either
embrace or sustain an ideology.
 Ideology may best be viewed as a form of rule-
following behavior.
“Ideology plays a crucial role in terrorist’s target
selection, it supplies terrorists which an initial
motive for action and provides a prism through
which they view events and the actions of other
people.”
(Drake, 1998)61

62. Bandura states “People don’t ordinarily engage in
reprehensible conduct until they have justified to
themselves the morality of their actions.”
“Terrorist must develop justifications for their
terrorist actions.”
(Cooper, 1977)
62

63. Taylor (1991) established the connection between
ideology and violent actions:
• Militant potential;
• Totality of the ideology; and
• Perceived imminence in millenarian
achievement;
63

64. (v) What are the vulnerabilities for failure and
decline of terrorist groups?
• Internal factors:
- internal mistrust
- boredom/inactivity
- internal power competition
- major disagreement
• External factors:
- external support
- constituencies
- intergroup conflicts
64

65. Limitations for Psychological Research on
Terrorism
 Illegality and secretiveness of terrorist
organizations, security and intelligence
considerations can impede/hurdle access to data
collection to make psychological theory building.
 “Most terrorist were unwilling to meet with
researchers.”
(Jager et al 1981)
65

66. “Disagreement between scholars studying
terrorism seems to suggest that it may be too
simplistic and erroneous to explain an act of
terrorism by a single cause.”
(Hudson, 1999)
66

67. Conclusion
First generation psychological research which is
mainly based on psychoanalysis has failed to
generalize the terrorism into any
psychopathological condition and it is not based on
the empirical studies.
Knowledge of terrorism most certainly is deficient
but the field shows no clear ability to improve this
situation. Based on the researches conducted,
many aspects of terrorism are still not clearly
explained and hence further researches are still
required to have a better understanding and
prevention of terrorism.67

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73. THANK YOU
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