SIWES Industrial Training report (NIGERIA)

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON STUDENTS’
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
Carried Out By:
Ahiante, Stephen Oriasotie
1487/2013
At:
Technology Development for Poverty Alleviation
Initiative (TD4PAI) Hub, Kuje, Abuja.
Department of Physics
Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun

Certification
This report is certified by the following stakeholders as a testament of successful
completion of Industrial-Training.
Industry-Based Supervisor Hub Manager
Technology Development for Poverty Technology Development for Poverty
Alleviation Initiative (TD4PAI) Alleviation Initiative (TD4PAI)
Industrial-Training Supervisor
Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun

Dedication
I dedicate this work to God who from who all things come.

Contents
Acknowledgment..........................................................................................................iv
Abstract.........................................................................................................................v
1. Chapter one.............................................................................................................1
Introduction
1.1. The Role of SIWES in the student developmental process................................1
1.2. The Hub............................................................................................................ 2
1.3. The Organizational Structure of the Hub...........................................................3
2. Chapter two.............................................................................................................5
Knowledge & skills acquired at the hub
2.1. Embedded Systems..........................................................................................5
2.1.1. Electronics................................................................................................6
2.1.2. Electrical & Electronic Components.........................................................9
2.1.3. Micro-controllers & Microprocessors.......................................................16
2.1.4. Sensors & Actuators................................................................................17
2.1.5. Calibration...............................................................................................18
2.2. Open Source.....................................................................................................20
2.2.1. Arduino....................................................................................................20
2.2.2. Single Board Computers..........................................................................22
2.2.2.1. Raspberry PI.....................................................................................22
2.2.2.2. Banana Pro.......................................................................................23
2.2.2.3. pcDuino............................................................................................24
2.2.3. Linux........................................................................................................25
2.3. Computer Programming...................................................................................26
2.3.1. Python......................................................................................................27

2.3.2. C++..........................................................................................................27
2.3.3. Bash Scripting...........................................................................................28
2.3.4. Scratch.....................................................................................................29
2.4. Printed Circuit Board Design............................................................................30
2.4.1. PCB etching.............................................................................................31
2.4.2. Prototyping Software...............................................................................32
2.5. Emerging Technologies....................................................................................34
2.5.1. Radio Frequency Identification................................................................34
2.5.2. Internet of Things....................................................................................34
2.6. Projects............................................................................................................36
2.6.1. Robotic Arm.............................................................................................36
2.6.2. Dot Matrix Display...................................................................................37
2.6.3. Smart Waste-bin.....................................................................................39
2.7. Trainings & Conferences..................................................................................44
2.7.1. NYSC SAED Programs.............................................................................44
2.7.2. NITDA sponsored trainings......................................................................46
2.7.3. Nigeria Internet Governance Forum.........................................................47
2.7.4. Start-Up Friday.........................................................................................48
2.7.5. Community Development Services..........................................................49
3. Chapter three..........................................................................................................51
Conclusion
3.1.Inference .........................................................................................................51
3.2.Recommendations.............................................................................................52
3.3.References........................................................................................................53
Appendix

iv
Acknowledgment
I would like to acknowledge the members of Technology Development for Poverty
Alleviation Initiative(TD4PAI) for without their availing to me the opportunity to work
with them, their support, work etiquette and witty jokes, I most probably won’t have
learnt what I now know.
I would also like to acknowledge the special efforts of Mrs. Monica Isemede for
providing a conducive environment for study.
I would also like to acknowledge the members of Pasali-Shaddadi Community of Kuje
Area Council, Abuja; it was a wonderful experience being part of the community,
socializing, learning and teaching.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the management of Technology Development for
Poverty Alleviation Initiative(TD4PAI) for daring to setup a hub for technology
development that promotes local content and inspiring young minds; reshaping the
technological paradigm of our country.

v
Abstract
This report examines the six months industrial training carried out at Technology Development
for Poverty Alleviation Initiative (TD4PAI) Hub, a non-governmental organization located at Kuje
Area Council, Abuja. The report covers the knowledge gained at the hub within the stated tenor.
As an NGO, the hub offers community development services to the immediate environs.
The report looks at how technological based start-up companies can be created, run and
managed.

1
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. The Role of SIWES in the Student Developmental Process
The role of the Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme can never be
over-emphasized; since its establishment in 1973, SIWES continues to solve the
problem of lack of practical skills in the lives of students of Nigerian Tertiary
Institutions(namely: Colleges of Education, Polytechnics, and Universities).
The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme enables students of
tertiary institutions to match lecture room work and industry based work together
thus deepening their understanding and creating the avenue for an easy, smooth
changeover to the working class environment. This is possible because, the
scheme provides students the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the
needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not
available in the educational institutions.
SIWES not only allows for the students to gain experience in their field of
study due to first hand exposure to the work field, but also enables the students to
develop priceless human relationships with colleagues in the same field, pioneers
of sorts in the same or diverse fields, venture capitalists and individuals of all
spheres.
The scheme also not only serves as a bridge between the theoretical work
and practical work but also equips students with practical skill mindset in the sense
that they are able to apply theoretical knowledge to practical everyday real life
problems and come up with feasible solutions.
SIWES, serves as a necessary prerequisite for awarding diploma, degree
certificates in specific disciplines in most tertiary institutions in Nigeria, in
accordance with the education policy of the Nigerian government. Hence, the
scheme serves as part of the structure to build Nigerian students both
educationally and morally.
Finally, the scheme also directly or indirectly changes the mindset of
students of tertiary institutions in that they develop the sense of entrepreneurship,
management and administration and thus do not have the mindset of limitation but
that of entrepreneurs, knowing that they too can be chief executive officers,
creating jobs and not seeking for jobs; this is one thing the scheme does and is
much needed in Nigeria today.

2
1.2. The Hub
Technology Development for Poverty Alleviation Initiative (TD4PAI) is a non-
governmental, non-profit Technology incubator, accelerator, training, research &
development hub that fosters innovative ideas through start-ups creation.
It is the mission of the hub to increase the socio-economic welfare of
especially rural communities by creating opportunities of gainful employment of
youth from vulnerable backgrounds by making technological education accessible
and developing life skills through innovation, incubation of start-ups and sustained
programs such as ICT trainings, creative arts, sports, mentoring.
The primary focus of the hub are cyber-physical systems(CPS), e-agriculture,
e-health, climate change and environment, renewable energy, and emerging
technologies.The hub also carries out reverse engineering in all fields: ICT,
Automobile, etc.
The aim and objectives of TD4PAI are:
● To promote the use of technology for poverty alleviation
● To provide skill acquisition for youths in information communication
technology
● To promote the implementation of people oriented projects in the
field of ICT for sustainable development; especially where there is
need to conquer socio-economic and technological imbalances to
drive knowledge and economic growth.
● To conduct world-class researches
● To develop cyber-physical systems for smart agriculture, irrigation
system, water quality monitoring(WQM) system, Flood alarm and
environmental monitoring systems, etc
● To educate a new generation of embedded systems engineering
technology youths to meet current and future industrial challenges
and emerging embedded systems trend.
● To identify, cultivate, finance, and develop competent and innovative
winning ideas, to develop STEM(Science, Technology, Engineering
and Maths) companies of the future from seed stage to exit.
TD4PAI also is an innovation camp that offers boot-camp training and provides
support for the development of entrepreneurs through the provision of technical
and business resources that would otherwise be out of reach; while receiving
under agreement, equity stakes from commercialized products for the
sustainability of the hub.

3
The hub accelerates the commercialization of new invented technologies while
also providing a unique educational experience.
1.3. The Organizational Structure of the Hub
Technology Development for Poverty Alleviation Initiative (TD4PAI hub)
has a simple structure; is headed by a hub manager that is supervised by a
board of trustees. There are there four main departments namely:
● The Mentors
● Volunteers
● The Incubates
● Internal Audit
Each organ of the hub is detailed in turn.
● The Board of Trustees
These members of the hub set the policies that guide the running
process of the hub. The board alone is vested with the power to
appoint and dismiss the hub manager, checkmate the internal audit
department and make extremely concrete decisions concerning the
hub.
● The Hub Manager
The hub manager is the personnel that is directly responsible for
directing and overseeing the affairs of the hub. The manager makes
exclusive decisions concerning projects, trainings, the incubates,
mentors, volunteers. The manager handles all running processes of
the hub.
● The Mentors
The mentors are the members of the hub that train and offer
guidance to the incubates.
● The Incubates
The incubates are all those being trained by the hub. They are
registered to the hub. National Youth Corp members, Industrial
Training students to name a few are the members of this department.
External trainings are handled by the incubates as it is the duty of
the department to teach to others what they know, have learnt and
studied. Together with the mentors, incubates carry out extensive
research, develop prototypes and develop solutions.

4
The hub helps incubates who have solution ideas to develop the idea
and create a start-up company from it.
The incubates are the face of the hub.
● Volunteers
Volunteers are members of the hub that have volunteered their
time and resources to the course of the hub. Venture Capitalists,
Angels & Donors can be categorized here. Since the TD4PAI is a non-
profit outfit; all members of the hub are invariably volunteers.
● Internal Audit
The internal audit department consists of the hub’s accountant, and
lawyers. They report directly to the hub manger and meet from time
to time with the board of trustees.
Fig 1.3. TD4PAI Organogram

5
Chapter Two
Knowledge & Skills acquired at the hub
2.1. Embedded Systems
Embedded systems are special purpose computer systems that perform
specific tasks. They are either part of of larger system(including hardware and
mechanical parts) or a standalone system. An embedded system employs a
micro-processor (or micro-controller) to be able to carry out its dedicated task.
Embedded systems process information.
Embedded systems are indispensable due to their compact size, low cost
and efficiency thus; they are everywhere, from our houses to offices and every
part of our lives. Examples of embedded systems are remote controls, blood cell
recorder,mp3 players, DC motor controller, printers, etc; they are found in cars,
planes, traffic light systems, televisions, mobile phones, microwave ovens,
refrigerators, video games, etc. Embedded systems are of high significance
because they can be used to gather data.
Typically, embedded systems are reactive, hybrid systems consisting of
analog, digital, mechanical parts that allow the system to connect and interact
with the physical world(mainly without human intervention) getting input
through sensors and impinging outputs on the environment using actuators.
Embedded systems like general purpose computers consist of both hardware
and software parts except unlike the latter, embedded systems software is not
programmable by the end users.
Embedded systems have to be programmed, and in programming them,
the pioneer language used is assembly language; although languages such as
C,embedded C, C++,embedded C++, Ada, Forth, Java(J2ME) can also be used.
Embedded systems also in order to interact with the external world need some
form of communication interface such as serial interfaces(SPI, RS-232, JTAG,
UART, I2C, etc), network interfaces(RJ-45, Lonworks, etc), converters(Analog-to-
Digital Converter(ADC), Digital-to-Analog Converter(DAC)), PLL(s), etc.
Embedded systems have some very pertinent characteristics of which
include:
● They must be dependable
● They must be reliable
● They must have security
● They must be safe

6
● They must meet real-time constraints
● They must be efficient in the areas of power consumption, size and
firmware(code running on the flash memory or read only
memory(ROM) of the chip)
● They must have a dedicated user interface
● The must be maintainable
Embedded systems are designed using mechanical, electrical, electronic,
controls, computer and communication systems and physical models.
2.1.1. Electronics
Electronics is the physics of manipulation of electrons to achieve a
specific purpose. Electronic devices differ from electrical devices in that
the former doesn’t just convert electrical energy from one form to another
to carry out a specific task like the latter does but rather controls and
exploits electrons to do a specific task(s).
Electronic devices include: remote control, television, radio sets,
computers, etc. Electrical devices include: fan, pressing iron, light bulb,
batteries, etc.
Atoms are made up of protons (which have positive charge) and
electrons (which have negative charge): which are the bearers of electric
charge which is denoted by the letter, Q and measured in coulombs. It is
the flow of electric charge carried by electrons that is referred to as
electric current which is denoted by the letter, I and measured using an
ammeter.
Mathematically,
I = Q
T
Where, T = Time(in seconds)
Atoms(and invariably, materials) that allow electric current flow
through them are called conductors and atoms that do not allow this flow
are called insulators. The complete path through which electric current
flows is called electric circuit. It is the concepts of electric charge,
electric current and electric circuit that set up the basis for electricity.
There are three basic kinds of electric circuits namely: open circuit,
closed circuit and short circuit. They are each explained in turn:
● Open circuit
In this type of circuit, the path is broken and thus, the flow of
electric current is interrupted. The interruption is made

7
possible either by the disconnection of one part of its
conducting pathway from another or by the by intervention of
electronic components such as switches, transistors, relays,
etc.
open circuit
● Closed circuit
In this type of circuit, the path is complete and current flows
as intended.
Closed circuit
● Short circuit
In this type of circuit, the path is somewhat corrupted and
current flows in ways that it shouldn’t . Typically, this type of circuit
is said to be when the negative terminal of the voltage source(e.g
battery) is directly connected to the positive terminal without any
form of resistance(e.g bulb, led, etc) between them. This type of
circuit destroys the voltage source and the conducting material(e.g
wire), and can also cause a fire outbreak.

8
Three basic keys for electronic circuits are voltage, current, and
power. Voltage(also known as Electromotive Force, EMF) is the difference
in charge in a conductive material. Electrons move randomly in the
lattice(from one atom to atom) in a conductor, voltage is analogous to a
“push” which makes them to move together. Voltage is measured in volts
denoted by the letter, V. It is measured using a voltmeter.
Mathematically,
V = J / Q
Where, V = Voltage
J = Electric energy
Q = Electric charge in coulomb
Without Voltage, there can be no current.
Power is the work-done by an electric circuit; it the time rate of
consumption of electric energy. It is measured in watts denoted by letter,
W.
Electric current that flows continuously in a single direction is called
direct current(DC); the voltage in a direct current circuit must be kept
relatively constant to keep current flowing in a single direction. Electric
current in which the voltage constantly reverses itself (invariably, the
direction of current flow) is known as alternating current(AC).
Electronic devices are able to manipulate electrons by means of
employing some electrical components, semi-conductor devices, Boolean
logic and logic gates.
Boolean logic refers to the manipulation of binary values in which a 1
represents the concept of true and a 0 represents the concept of false.
When this Boolean principle is implemented in electronics, the binary
values are represented by voltage levels. In the most common convention,
a binary value of one is represented by +5V (five volts) also called high,
and a binary value of zero is represented by 0V(zero volts) also called low.
Electronics that is achieved using the Boolean logic and logic gates is
known as digital electronics; and if it done using only the components of

9
electricity e.g diodes, capacitors, resistors, relays, op-amp, it is known as
analog electronics.
In analog electronics, the circuits are usually complex combinations of op-
amps, resistors, capacitors, and other foundational electronic components.
The circuits are more difficult compared to digital circuits and are
generally more susceptible to noise(small, undesired variations in voltage).
In digital electronics, the circuits operate using digital, discrete signals.
The circuits are made up of a combination of transistors and logic gates
and at higher levels, microcontrollers and other computing chip.
2.1.2. Electrical & Electronic Components
Electrical and electronic components are discrete devices in an
electronic system. They can be classified into three: passive, active and
semi-conductor components.
● Active Components
These are components that produces, supplies and controls
electrical energy. It includes voltage and current sources. Direct
voltage sources produce direct voltage output examples include:
cell, batteries, DC generators, etc. Alternating voltage sources
produce alternating voltage output, examples include: the
mains(220V, 50Hz for Nigeria), AC generators, nuclear generators,
etc.
● Passive Components
Passive components are components that respond to the flow of
electric energy. They either dissipate or store energy. Examples are
explained in turn.
● Resistors
Resistors are non-polarized passive components that offer
resistance (obstruction) to the flow of electric current.
Resistance can be calculated from ohms law as:
R = V / I
Where, R = Resistance
V = Voltage
I = Current

10
Resistors exist as different variants: fixed value resistors,
variable resistors, potentiometers, photo-resistors, thermistors,
etc.
Variable resistors(rheostats) are resistors in which the
resistance offered can be varied or changed. Potentiometers
are three-terminal variable resistors. Photo-resistor(Light
Dependent Resistor, LDR) are resistors that exhibit photo-
conductivity(a phenomenon in which resistance decreases
with increasing light intensity), thermistors are resistors in
which the resistance offered is dependent on temperature; the
hotter the system, the lesser the resistance offered.
The schematic representations of fixed-valued resistors,
rheostats, potentiometers(pots), LDR is given below:
Potentiometers
Resistors come in either through hole or surface-mount
termination. Most resistors are made out of either a carbon,
metal or metal-oxide; these materials are conductive(though
still resistive).
Fixed value resistors come in 4-bands, 5-bands, or 6-band.
Each band is of a colour and the colour corresponds to a value
according to the resistor colour code(see appendix). The
colours together give the value of resistance offered by the
resistor.

11
● Capacitors
Capacitors are two terminal linear passive components made
from two conductive plates with an insulator between them.
The main function of a capacitor is that it stores electrical
energy when an electric charge is forced onto its terminals
from a power source. It maintains the charge even after it is
disconnected from the power source. Capacitance is a
measure of how much charge a capacitor can store, it is
measured in farad denoted by letter, F
Types of capacitors:
● Non-Electrolytic capacitors
They are non-polarized and the values ranges from a
few pF to as high as 1uF.
● Electrolytic capacitors
They are polarized and the values ranges from 1uF to
about 4700uF.
● Variable capacitors
These are capacitors whose capacitance can be
varied or changed.
The schematic representation of capacitors is shown below:
● Inductors
An inductor or coil or a reactor is a two-terminal passive
electrical component. The main function of an inductor is that
it stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy.
Generally an inductor comprises a conductor, commonly
wound into a coil, that works on the principle of Faraday’s
law of inductance. When a current flows through the coil from
the left side to the right side – the coil produces a magnetic

12
field in the clockwise direction. The inductance of the inductor
is denoted by letter, L. Inductance is measured in Henry(s).
The schematic representation of inductor is given as:
● Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device which consists of two
coils of wire, that are linked by an iron core. It offers
the much needed capability of changing the current and
voltage levels easily. The main function of the transformer is
that to increase (step-up) or decrease(step-down) AC voltages.
The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, that is, mutual inductance between
two circuits, that is linked by a common magnetic flux.
Transformer converts an electrical energy from one circuit to
another circuit with the help of mutual induction between the
two windings without electrical connection between them, and
also converts power from one circuit to another circuit without
changing the frequency but with a different voltage level.
In a step up transformer, secondary coil contains more
winding than the primary coil. Coming to a step-down
transformer, it has more windings in the primary coil than the
secondary coil. These are one of the main reasons we use AC
current in our homes and not DC. DC voltages cannot be
changed using transformers.
The schematic representation of transformers is given as:

13
● Switches
A switch is an electrical device which is used to break
the circuit, interrupting the current and to supply the current
from one conductor to another conductor. The switch works
with ON and OFF mechanism. Switches are classified into four
types such as (SPST) single pole single throw, (SPDT) single
pole double throw, (DPST) double pole single throw and (DPDT)
double pole double throw.
The number of poles defines the number of separate contacts
for a switch position(inputs). The number of throws is the
number of switch positions available(output).
Other passive components include, relays, fuses, crystal oscillators,
operational-amplifiers(op-amp),etc.
● Semi-conductor components
Semi-conductors are materials that partially conduct electric
current, they can be thought of as part-time conductors. The
conductivity of semi-conductor can be controlled. Silicon(Si) and
germanium(Ge) are two commonly used semi-conductors; they
have four valence electrons, they are used in fabricating these
semi-conductor components:
● Diodes
Diodes are semi-conductor devices that allow current to pass
through them in only one direction; it blocks the current which
tries to against the flow in a conductive material. Diodes
consist of an anode(positive terminal) and a cathode(negative
terminal)and have a characteristic bias voltage. Diodes are
often used in electronic circuits that convert AC to DC in a
process known as rectification.
Types of Diodes
● Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are designed to have a very fast
switching time. They are used in digital circuits and
computers since they can be switched on and off quickly.
● Light emitting diodes(LEDs)
These diodes convert electrical energy to light energy. It
undergoes electroluminescence process in which holes
and electrons are recombined to produce energy in the

14
form of light in forward bias condition. They are
designed with a very large band gap(which is the energy
difference between the top of the valence band and the
bottom of the conduction band of the semi-conductor
material). Lower band gap LEDs emit infrared radiation
while higher band gap LEDs emit visible light.
● Zener diodes
Zener diodes are diodes that work under the principle of
zener breakdown(the principle that governs how current
flows when the semi-conductor device reaches its zener
voltage). It is similar to normal diode in forward
direction, it also allows current in reverse direction when
the applied voltage reaches the breakdown voltage. It is
designed to prevent the other semiconductor devices
from momentary voltage pulses. It acts as voltage
regulator.
Schematically,
Other types of diodes include:
● Photo-diodes
● Varactor diodes
● Step-recovery diodes
● Laser diodes
● Avalanche diodes
● Small signal diodes, etc
● Transistors
Transistors are three-layered semi-conductor devices
consisting of three terminals used amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power.

15
Transistors are either bi-polar junction transistors(BJT) or Field
effect transistors(FET). There are two types of bi-polar junction
transistors PNP and NPN, most circuits tend to use NPN
transistor. Transistors are designed in different shapes and
the three terminals of the transistor namely, base (B),
emitter (E) and collector(C). Where, base terminal is
responsible for activating the transistor, emitter terminal is
the negative lead and collector terminal is the positive lead.
Schematically,
● Integrated circuits
The short form of an integrated circuit is IC and sometimes it
is also called as microchip. The Integrated circuit is a
semiconductor device, where loads of resistors, capacitors,
and transistors are fabricated. It can function as an oscillator,
microprocessor, amplifier, and timer. An IC is categorized as
either linear or non-linear depending on its application. Linear
integrated circuits or analog integrated circuits have
continuously variable output and that depends on the level of
input signal. These linear ICs are used as audio frequency and
radio frequency amplifiers. Digital ICs operate at only a few
defined states, rather than over a continuous range of signal
amplitudes.
ICs have packages. The package is what encapsulates the
integrated circuit die and splays it out into a device that can
be easily connected to. Each outer connection on the die is
connected via a tiny piece of gold wire to a pad or pin on the
package. Pins are the silver, extruding terminals on an IC,
which go on to connect to other parts of a circuit. All ICs are
polarized, and every pin is unique in terms of both location
and function. This means the package has to have some way
to convey which pin is which. Most ICs will use either a notch
or a dot to indicate which pin is the first pin. (Sometimes both,
sometimes one or the other).

16
One of the main distinguishing package type characteristics is
the way they mount to a circuit board. All packages fall into
one of two mounting types: through-hole (PTH) or surface-
mount (SMD or SMT).
The applications of integrated circuits include computers,
modems, computer networks and frequency counters. The
basic structure of digital integrated circuits is logic gates,
which work with binary data.
Schematically,
2.1.3. Micro-controllers & Micro-processors
A micro-processor is a general purpose computer on a single
chip(integrated circuit) that can be used to create a multi-functional
system. It has a standalone CPU(central processing unit that has a control
unit, arithmetic logic and control unit(ALU), registers(such as flip flops,
latches), internal bus. The microprocessor has no RAM(random access
memory), ROM(read only memory), timers, input/output ports; they all
must be added externally, and this makes the microprocessor both
versatile and expansive as desired RAM, ROM size can be allocated.
Examples of microprocessors are Intel’s x86, Motorola’s 680x0, etc.
A micro-controller is a computer on a single integrated circuit that
optimized to control electronic devices. It has the RAM, ROM, timers, and
input/output pins all on the same chip, this would mean that the micro-
controller has a fixed size of Random Access Memory(RAM), Read Only
Memory(ROM),input/output ports, that are not expansible. Micro-
controllers serve a single purpose ans is best suitable for applications that
in which cost, power, and space are critical. Most micro-controllers work
with time in microseconds. Famous microcontrollers manufacturer include:
Atmel, Intel, Microchip, etc. Examples of microcontrollers include: Intel’s
8051, Atmega 328, Atmega 168, etc.

17
Micro-controllers are also known as MCU(micro controller unit).
Typically have at least 1000 bytes of ROM and 20 bytes of RAM along with
eight Input/Output pins. They can also be used for data analysis.
The pin diagram of atmega328 and 8051 is given below:
2.1.4. Sensors and Actuators
Humans respond to stimuli through data gotten from the five senses;
sight, touch, smell, taste, hearing. To get data from the external world,
sensors are used, these sensors receive and respond to signals (which can
be likened to stimulus). The sensors’ response (output) can be in the form
of voltage, current or charge.
A sensor is a device that can detect and measure signals from
physical quantities. A sensor is not the same as a transducer in the sense
that sensors convert these signals gotten from any type of energy into
electrical energy and transducers just convert one form of energy into
another, complex sensors may be made up of two or more transducers.
Sensors measure continuous and discrete data variables.
There are two basic categories of sensors:
● Analog sensors
Analog sensors are also known as proportional sensors. They
provide an analog output which may be voltage, current,
resistance or even a digital word containing a discrete
value(i.e 0 or 1).

18
● Digital sensors
Digital sensors are also called discrete, logic or bang-bang
sensors. They provide a single logical output; 0 or 1. For
digital sensors, the output may either be a PNP(sourcing
output; in which the output is positive) or an NPN(sinking
output; in which the output is negative).
Types of sensors include:
● Optical Sensors e.g: Infra-red sensors, Photo-transistors, Light
Dependent Resistors(LDR), etc.
● Thermal Sensors e.g: Thermocouple, Thermometer, resistance
temperature detectors(RTDs), etc.
● Mechanical Sensors e.g: gas flow sensor, accelerometer,
altimeter, pressure sensor, barometer, etc.
● Electrical sensors e.g ohmmeter, ammeter, voltage sensor etc
● Electrochemical sensors e.g: gas sensors such as oxygen
sensor, carbon-monoxide sensor, methane sensor, etc
Other types of sensors include: motion sensors, ultrasonic sensors, Geiger
counters, acoustic wave sensors, seismometers, etc
Actuators are hardware devices that convert analog or digital
signals into a change in physical parameter. The change is usually
mechanical. Types of actuators include:
● Electric actuators such as solenoid, AC/DC electric motors,
stepper motors, servo motors, etc.
● Hydraulic actuators: which work by means of pressurized
liquid e.g hydraulic pumps
● Pneumatic actuators: which work by means of pressurized or
compressed air.
2.1.5. Calibration
Calibration is the process of correlating the readings of a sensor to
that of a standard in other to achieve near accuracy. Precision and
resolution are what makes a good sensor; noise and hysteresis affect
precision.
Calibration is necessary to carry out because of the following reasons:
● No sensor is perfect

19
● The sensor is only one component in the measurement
system. Factors such as thermal gradient, Analog-Digital
conversion, ambient light, spectral distribution, etc are also
involved in the measurement.
To properly calibrate, a calibration reference(which is standard) is needed.
Standard references include:
● A calibrated sensor
● A standard physical reference such as rulers, meter sticks,
gravity, boiling and melting point of water, etc.
Proper calibration methods include:
● One point calibration
In which, measurements are taken with the sensor; the
readings compared with the reference standard; the readings
subtracted from the reference reading to get the offset and
the offset is added/subtracted to every sensor reading in the
programming source code to get the calibrated value. This
method is used for sensors such as ultrasonic sensors.
● Two point calibration
In which two measurements are taken; one near the low end
of the measurement range and one near the high end of the
measurement range. These reading can is recorded as
RawLow and RawHigh. The measurement is then repeated
with the reference instrument and recorded as ReferenceLow
and ReferenceHigh. The range of the sensor reading which is
recorded as RawRange is calculated as RawHigh - RawLow.
The ReferenceRange is calculated as ReferenceHigh -
ReferenceLow. In the programming code, the calibrated value
is calculated as CorrectedValue = (((RawValue - RawLow) *
ReferenceRange) / RawRange) + ReferenceLow. This method
is mostly used for temperature sensors, gas sensors, etc.
● Multi-point calibration
This calibration method is mostly used for sensors that are not
linear over the measurement range and require some curve
fitting to achieve accurate measurements e.g thermocouples.

20
2.2. Open Source
Open source is a methodology or philosophy that promotes free access
and redistribution to a product’s design or ideas and implementation details.
Open source material can be reused and changed and is also in place for
anyone with no restriction to persons or groups, and fields of endeavor. With
open source, the wheel does not have to be reinvented. Examples of open
source materials include: Mozilla Firefox, 7-zip, GIMP, Linux, FreeBSD, Arduino,
Android, PHP, Python, Perl, Ruby, wikimedia, wordpress, Joomla, etc.
2.2.1. Arduino
Arduino is an open source general purpose microcontroller
programming and prototyping platform. Arduino can be categorized as
open source hardware. The real world can be linked to the virtual world
via arduino; by connecting arduino to the internet to send data or receive
data and respond to it or both. The heart of arduino is a microcontroller.
The Arduino family consists of several versions of arduino such as:
Arduino Uno, Arduino nano, Arduino mega, Arduino Lilypad, Arduino Due,
Arduino diecimilla, Arduino Leonardo, Arduino Micro,Arduino Duemilanove,
Arduino NG, and Arduino Bluetooth, etc. Each of these versions is based
on a particular Atmel microcontroller.
The arduino uno is based on the Atmega 328 microcontroller and
operates at 16MHz. It has 14 digital input/output(I/O)pins and 6 analog
pins. Power can be provided to the board via USB connection or the DC
barrel connector, or by using power input pin headers. The onboard power
regulator is smart enough to know when one is being used. It has an
onboard utility LED connected to digital pin 13, and also a reset button.
A key difference between Arduino Uno and other boards is that is has a
USB controller chip integrated onboard which makes it easier to hit the
ground running because you simply plug it to a computer and it is
recognized. Previous versions required that software drivers for a USB
interface provided by FTDI(Future Technology Devices International) is
installed.
The Arduino has pin headers at the top and bottom of the board that
allow insertion of wires to make easy circuit connections for these
accessories. The “footprint” of these headers provides an easy,
standardized layout to add circuit boards to provide these extra features
such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, wireless radio, GPS, audio playback and motor
control, etc. These accessory boards are known in the Arduino community
as shields. In addition to shield there are also devices known as breakout
boards. Breakout boards are mini printed circuit boards built around an
integrated circuit with a dedicated function such as a real time clock, LED,
accelerometer, etc.

21
Arduino Uno, Mega, Leonardo, Due, Lilypad and micro boards are
shown below:
To program the microcontroller, Arduino provides an integrated
development environment(IDE) that is cross-platform. The arduino IDE
supports the languages C and C++ using special rules to organize code. A
program written in the IDE is called a sketch and has the file
extension .ino. A typical Arduino C/C++ sketch consist of two functions
that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an
executable cyclic executive program:
● setup(): this function is called once when a sketch starts after power-
up or reset. It is used to initialize variables, pin modes, start using
libraries, etc.
● loop(): after setup() is called, this function is called repeatedly until
the board powers off. It actively controls the Arduino board and
allows the program to change or respond.
After compiling and linking with the GNU toolchain, also included with the
IDE distribution, the Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert
the executable code into a text file in hexadecimal coding that is loaded
into the Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.

22
2.2.2. Single Board Computers
A single board computer(SBC) is a complete computer built on a
single circuit board, with microprocessor(s), memory, Input/Output(I/O)
pins, and other features required of a functional computer. SBCs typically
provide fan-less, low-power consumption computing solutions.
Single board computers typically feature System on Chips(SOC) to
obtain the status of a micro computer. A system on chip is an integrated
circuit (IC) that integrates all components of a computer or other
electronic system into a single chip. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-
signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single chip substrate.
Current SBCs come with a wide variety of processor types most with
Graphical Processing units(GPU) on board. These processors range from
x86 based processors from the traditional PC space(AMD and Intel) to ARM
processors which have been used in the industrial and more recent mobile
space. The most prevalent software used on SBCs is Linux which comes in
different flavors and distributions such as: Android, Ubuntu, Mint, Fedora,
CentOS, FreeBSD, etc.
Many Single Board Computers are becoming more powerful and are
now having the capabilities of modern day PCs and tablets. Examples of
single board computers are: Raspberry PI, CubieBoard, Orange Pi,
BeagleBone, Banana Pi, PCduino, PandaBoard, cotton candy, dragon board,
Edison, Galileo, Arduino Due, etc.
2.2.2.1. Raspberry PI
The Raspberry Pi is a credit sized computer. It is a single board
computer based on the broadcom BCM2835 System on Chip. The
Raspberry Pi is a fully featured micro-computer squashed onto a
circuit board measuring approximately 9cm x 5.5cm. It was
manufactured and designed in the United Kingdom by the
Raspberry Pi foundation with the intention of teaching basic
computer science to school students and every other person
interested in computer hardware, programming and DIY(Do-it
Yourself) projects.
The Raspberry Pi comes in different board version with the most
recent being the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B. Other versions include:
Raspberry Pi zero, Raspberry Pi 1 Model A+, Raspberry Pi 1 Model
B+, Raspberry Pi 2 Model B.
The Raspberry Pi primarily uses Linux-Kernel Based Operating
systems; with the official operating system being the Raspbian.The
OS install manager for Raspberry Pi is NOOBS(New Out of the Box
Software). Other operating systems that can be used are: Ubuntu,
Debian ARM, RISC OS, Windows 10 IoT core, Gentoo Linux, etc. The

23
programming languages that come installed on Raspberry Pi's are
(but not limited to): Java, Scratch, and Ruby.
The Raspberry Pi is used for teaching programming concepts,
teaching hardware interfacing, robotics and controlling motors, as a
media center, as a small sever, home automation, etc.
To use the Raspberry Pi, one only needs to get a Raspberry Pi
board, a memory card containing the operating system, a keyboard,
a mouse, HDMI cable(to connect to a television or other form of
monitor), and a 5V adapter.
Fig 2.2.2.1 The Raspberry Pi 3
2.2.2.2. Banana Pro
The Banana Pi Pro is a credit card-sized and low-power single-
board computer developed in China by the LeMaker Team, with the
goal of promoting STEM (science, technology, engineering and
mathematics) education in schools. Like its smaller sibling the
Banana Pi, the Pro concept is heavily influenced by the Raspberry Pi,
however the Banana Pro provides various enhancements over prior
designs.
The Banana Pro has an Allwinner A20 system on a chip (SoC), which
includes an ARM Cortex-A7 Dual-core (ARMv7-A) 1 GHz, Mali-400
MP2 GPU and 1GB DDR3 SDRAM.
The Banana Pro uses a microSD card for booting an OS, but also
includes a SATA 2.0 interface to allow connection of a hard disk for
additional storage, however you cannot boot from the hard

24
disk.Other differences from the Banana Pi include on-board Wi-Fi
802.11 b/g/n AP6181, integrated composite video and audio output
into a 3.5 mm TRRS jack. This makes space for a 40-pin extension
header.
Fig 2.2.2.2 The banana pi pro
The banana pro is used for testing android applications developed at the
hub.
2.2.2.3. pcDuino
pcDuino is a mini PC or single board computer platform that
runs PC like OS such as Ubuntu and Android ICS. It outputs screen to
HDMI. Moreover, it has hardware headers interface compatible with
Arduino (TM). pcDuino can be used to teach Python, C, C++, etc.
Fig 2.2.2.3. The pcDuino

25
2.2.3. Linux
Linux is a free open source computer operating system initially built
for Intel x86 based personal computers but has subsequently been ported
to other hardware platforms. Linux is an open source operating system
developed by Linus Torvalds. The operating system comes in different
distributions all having the Linux kernel as the heart. A distribution is a
collection of software making up a Linux based OS. The Linux operating
system is comprised of a bootloader, kernel, daemons, shell, graphical
server,desktop environment and applications.
Linux distributions(or in the short form, “distros”) are Linux versions
of which any one is designed to suit a specific purpose. There are literally
over hundreds of Linux distributions but the most popular Linux
distributions are:
● Ubuntu
● Linux Mint
● Arch Linux
● Debian
● Fedora
● openSUSE
● CentOS
● Kali Linux, etc

26
2.3. Computer Programming
A computer program is a set of instructions for the computer to follow.
Computer programming is the act or practice of instructing the computer
on what task to perform. It is a creative way of converting ideas into
computer software. To write compute programs, programming languages
are used. Examples of programming languages include:
● C
● C++
● Objective-C
● C#
● PHP
● Python
● Java
● JavaScript
● Ruby, etc
There are several ways of building computer programs; this gives
rise to the concept of programming paradigm. Programming languages
belong to a paradigm(or more-Multi-paradigm). Examples of paradigms
include: procedural, structured, object-oriented languages, etc. Types of
programming language are:
● Machine Language
Machine language is the native language of computers.
Programs written in machine language is written in binary
code.
● Assembly Language
Assembly language programs are made up of instructions
written in mnemonics.(Uses convenient alphabetic
abbreviations to represent instructions)
● High-level Language
High level languages uses statements that resemble English
phrases combined with mathematical terms.
All programs in whatever form of language must be first converted
to machine language before their instructions can be executed.

27
Programming languages can also be classified as either compiled
languages; in which the whole code is compiled then run or interpreted
languages; in which each line of code is interpreted and run. Interpreted
languages are also known as scripting languages.
2.3.1. Python
Python is a powerful, multi-paradigm interpreted language. It is a
high level programming language. Python is easy to learn, python codes
are easy to read, and applications built with python take less development
time compared to other programming languages. Python can be used to
script browser-based applications, design mathematical, scientific and
engineering applications, interact with databases, etc.
There are basically two versions of python: python 2 and python 3. Both
are easily usable and have very few differences. Everything in python is
an object that has an id and a value(mutable or immutable). The official
interpreter of python is IDLE(Interactive DeveLopment Environment);
there are other interpreters such as Anaconda, Canopy, etc. Programs
written in python have the file extension .py
Below is a python code that that gives the square root of numbers:
def square_it(n):
“””takes one argument: n, an integer and gives it’s square root”””
if type(n) == int:
print “the square root of %s is %s “ %(n, n**0.5)
The first line of the above code defines a function, square_it with the
keyword “def”. The function takes an argument, “n”. The second line is
what is known in python as a docstring, this docstring can be thought of
as an explanation to what the function does. The third line uses the “if”
condition statement to check what data type the argument n given is; if n
is an integer, the function displays to the user in line four using the “print”
statement and string formatting style “%s” that the square root of the
integer given is the value given by the computation: n raised to the
power(**) 0.5(which is same as 1/2 or √ ).
2.3.2. C++
C++ is a powerful object-oriented programming language. It is a
compiled language; it is based on C programming language and can be
used to program anything. To write programs in C++, the integrated
development environment(IDE) together with the compiler to be used has
to to installed on the operating system to been used. Examples of C++
IDEs include code::blocks, dev, etc. The source code of C++ programs
have the file extension .cpp.

28
Below is a code written in C++:
#include <iostream>
#include < math.h>
using namespace std;
main()
{
double a, b;
cout<< “please, enter an integer” << endl;
cin>> a;
cout <<”the square root of “<< a << “ is “ << pow(a, b) <<endl;
}
The first line of code imports and gives access to the input/output stream
which allows for taking in values and displaying to the console/terminal.
The second line imports the math library; which gives access to different
math operations. The third line invokes the namespace standard. The
fourth line “main” is where the program execution begins. The code is
wrapped in curly braces {}. The sixth line declares the variables a and b
with double precision floating point data type(a variant of float data type
in which 8 bytes is used for it by the compiler. A double can store any
value between ± 2.23 x 10-308 to ± 1.80 x 10308. The seventh line uses
the “cout” to display an instruction to the console. The eighth line uses
the “cin” to take in a value from the user. The ninth line displays the
square root of the value given by the user via the pow function made
accessible by the “math.h” library included in the second line.
Python can be merged with C/C++ and through a wrapper language
known as Cython.
2.3.3. Bash scripting
Bourne Again Shell(Bash) is a terminal emulator that is accessible in
Linux and Unix-like systems. A shell is a program that interprets and
manages commands. The shell is far more powerful than the graphical
user interface(GUI) that most operating systems provide. A shell script is a
group of commands, functions, variables, and just about anything that can
be used from a shell. These items can then be typed as into a plain text
file. That file can then be run as a command. Shell scripts are equivalent
to batch files in MS-DOS, and other Microsoft operating systems. Just like
programming languages, in shell scripts, variables, keywords and special
characters, conditional statements, and looping methods are also used. In

29
naming variables, the equal to sign(assignment symbol; = ) must touch
both the variable name and the value being assigned to it. E.g:
NAME=value. Special characters include dollar sign($), back tick(`), etc.
Shell scripting employs an if...else conditional statement, case conditional
and for....do loop.
The bash shell is the default shell for most installations and is the best
shell to learn as there are several other shells. It is the best to learn
because of the certification examinations in Linux Administration.
Below is an example of shell script using the for.....do loop:
for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
do
echo $i
done
The first line employs the for keyword, creates a variable, i and a list of
numbers. The second line uses the do keyword which directs the script
to do whatever follows it. The third line uses the echo keyword to display
into the terminal; the dollar sign followed by i gives the values of i as
looped through in the for loop. The fourth line signifies that the script is
done.
2.3.4. Scratch
Scratch is a graphical programming language developed by students of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) for programming learning
concepts for children. It is a cross platform program. Scratch is designed
especially for ages 8 to 16, but is used by people of all ages. Millions of people
are creating Scratch projects in a wide variety of settings, including homes,
schools, museums, libraries, and community centers.Scratch is used at the hub
for training children.
Below is an image of the scratch program:
Fig 2.3.4 Scratch programming interface.

30
2.4. Printed Circuit Board Design
A printed circuit board(PCB) is a board that has various lines and pads that
connect various points together. A PCB mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
Components – capacitors, resistors or active devices – are generally soldered on
the PCB; this means that a PCB basically consists of alternating layers of
different materials. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the
substrate.
Fig 2.4.i basic component of PCBs
The base material, or substrate, is usually fiberglass. Historically, the most
common designator for this fiberglass is “FR4”. This solid core gives the PCB
its rigidity and thickness. There are also flexible PCBs built on flexible high-
temperature plastic such as Kapton or the equivalent.
The next layer is a thin copper foil, which is laminated to the board with heat
and adhesive. On common, double sided(having two layers of copper)PCBs,
copper is applied to both sides of the substrate. In lower cost electronic gadgets
the PCB may have copper on only one side. PCBs can have as few as 1 layer or
as many as 16 layers or more. The layer on top of the copper foil is called the
soldermask layer. This layer gives the PCB its colour. It is overlaid onto the
copper layer to insulate the copper traces from accidental contact with other
metal, solder, or conductive bits. This layer helps the user to solder to the
correct places and prevent solder jumpers. The white silkscreen layer is applied
on top of the soldermask layer. The silkscreen adds letters, numbers, and
symbols to the PCB that allow for easier assembly and indicators for humans to
better understand the board.
In order to design a PCB, a computer aided design(CAD) package is used to
draw up the schematic design which is in Gerber format withe the file
extension, .gbr. These Gerber files are usually sent to PCB manufacturing
companies. These companies use techniques such as PCB CAM, panelization,

31
copper patterning, etc to produce the boards. The boards are populated with
electronic components in mass production using a pick and place machine or
SMT placement machine. PCBs employs either Through-hole technology or
surface mount technology or both for placing components
.
Fig 2.4.ii PCB schematic design
Fig 2.4.iii A PCB
For non-mass production and non-commercial use, PCBs can be etched in the
lab. See appendix for PCB terminology.
2.4.1. PCB etching
Etching is a subtractive method for producing printed circuit boards:
acid is used for removing unwanted copper from a prefabricated laminate.
This is done by applying a temporary mask that protects parts of the
laminate from the acid and leaves the desired copper layer untouched.
PCB can be etched anywhere the right materials available.
Two Acid types that can be used for etching are ferric chloride (Eisen-3-
Chloride) and Sodium Persulfate, etc.
Since the work involves dangerous chemicals and power tools, necessary
safety precautions will have to be taken:

32
1. Safety equipment will have to be worn during the whole process -
gloves, protection glasses, and an apron.
2. Work has to be done near an emergency eyewash station, a first aid
box and a phone.
3. Questions should be asked when uncertain on what to do in some
cases.
In etching, a copper plate is used; the first thing that is done is that the
board is designed using a CAD package such as eagle, fritzing, etc. The
design is then exported to pdf or SVG format and then printed in the
highest resolution. Next, the copper plate is made smooth using sand
paper so the design can stick when transferred. The design is then
placed on the board and run through a laminator or hot iron until the
plate is hot. The board is then soaked in hot water till the paper peels off
leaving the design marks on the copper plate. The board is then soaked
in a solution of ferric chloride till the board is completely etched. The
board is then washed with fresh water. The board is then scraped with
metallic sponge till no design marks are left. The board is then washed
with warm water. The through holes are then drilled using a dremel, 1/32
drill.
Fig 2.4.1 An etched board
2.4.2. Prototyping Softwares
Prototyping Softwares are computer aided design
packages(applications) that is used to test, simulate, and design
electronic circuits, printed circuit boards, and complete embedded
systems. Examples of these packages include: Eagle, Fritzing, Proteus,
KiCAD, etc.

33
● Eagle
Eagle is an easy to use schematic editor. It features auto-
routing among other features.
● Fritzing
Fritzing is an open source hardware CAD package that allows
the design of electronic circuits, PCBs and simulations.
Fritzing's PCB view allows users to design and export layout
files for single-sided, DIY Printed Circuit Boards. Sketches can
also be exported to Gerber files. The Gerber files used by
professional PCB manufacturing services to manufacture PCBs.
Fig 2.4.2 A screenshot of the fritzing software

34
2.5. Emerging Technologies
Emerging technologies are technologies that are new but still include
older technologies. These technologies are capable of changing the world and
the current working system. Emerging technologies are still very much
controversial and under active development. Examples of such technologies are:
Artificial intelligence, Radio Frequency Identification(RFID), robotics, 3D printing,
nanotechnology, Big data, Virtualization, Augmented reality, internet of things,
internet of everything, etc.
2.5.1. Radio Frequency Identification
Radio Frequency Identification, RFID is a technology that
incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the
radio frequency(RF) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely
identify an object. RFID being an automatic identification method relies on
storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags and
RFID readers.
The RFID tags are also known as RFID transponders, they consist of
a chip, memory and an antenna. RFID tags contain information. RFID
readers gather information from the tags. Radio waves are used to
transfer data from the tags to the readers.
The hub has tapped into RFID technology and has developed her own
RFID reader under the flagship: RFID 9ja Reader.
Fig 2.5.1 RFID 9ja Reader
2.5.2. Internet of Things
The internet of things is basically an emerging technological
infrastructure in which basic objects are connected to the internet and can
communicate to other objects and to users; giving real time data. The

35
internet of things (IoT) is the back bone of smart homes, automated
devices, etc.
The hub has tapped into the IoT. The Ruwatronik V2 which is one of
the hub’s start-up product is IoT based. The Ruwatronik can be used for:
● Reservoir Monitoring
● Silo Monitoring
● Flood detection and intrusion
● Commercial smart waste bins, etc.
Fig 2.5.2 The Ruwatronik Device.

36
2.6. Projects
At the hub, the incubates were engaged in several projects on the fly.
Lessons were also given on the working principle of the already existing
products.
Some of the projects engaged in include:
2.6.1. Robotic Arm
The robotic arm project was initiated for the need to serve
dangerous services such as disarming bombs, surgeries, difficult
construction, etc.
The robotic arm prototype was built using the following:
● Atmega 328 microcontroller
● 5 servo motors
● Sticks
● Gum gun
● 4 Potentiometers
PROCEDURE
1. A servo motor was mounted to serve as the base servo.
2. Two servo motors were mounted on the base servo to move in
the same direction.
3. A stick was glued using the gum gun to the horn of each servo to
serve as the frame of the arm. Sticks were then glued to each
side of the frame to strengthen the frame.
4. At the end of the frame, another servo motor was mounted so as
to carry the remaining frame of the arm.
5. At the remaining frame of the arm, another servo motor was
mounted. This servo controlled the picking action of the arm.
6. Each servo motor was connected to to a potentiometer.
7. The Atmega 328 was programmed using the arduino uno. For
each turning action of a potentiometer, the servo motor
connected to that potentiometer rotated in direction.
See appendix for the source code of the robotic arm

37
Below is the prototype developed using fritzing:
2.6.2. Dot-Matrix Display
The dot-matrix display project was initiated to build the soldering
skills of incubates and to familiarize them with the basic anode-cathode
matrix manipulation. The DMD project had a complete life cycle of one
month.
The dot-matrix display(DMD) is a matrix of Light emitting diodes(LEDs).
The matrix developed by the team was a 48 by 8 matrix. 3 vero-boards
were used and each had on it a matrix of 16 by 8 LEDs. Combined
together; gave the desired 48 by 8 matrix.
The following components were used:
● 3 vero-boards.
● Male headers.
● Female headers.
● A 220VAC to 15VAC small transformer.
● Jumper wires.
● Shift Registers: 74HC595.
● Arduino Uno(Atmega 328).

38
● NPN Transistors (BC547).
● 220Ω Resistors.
● LM7805 voltage regulators.
● Red LEDs.
● Diodes (IN4001).
● 47uF capacitors.
Fig 2.6.2.i. A vero board housing a 16 by 8 LED matrix
Procedure
1. The Leds were soldered in rows and columns, the anodes of LEDs in
a column were soldered together. The cathodes of LEDs in a row
were all soldered together onto the vero boards.
2. A matrix of 16 X 8 LEDs was soldered onto a vero board.
3. The jumper wires were employed during the soldering process to
solder cathode to cathode and anode to anode.
4. A digital multi-meter was used to test for continuity during soldering.
5. The rows i.e the cathodes were connected to ground(0V) through the
NPN transistors; then through to the shift registers of which the latch,

39
clock and data pins were connected the Atmega 328 of the arduino
development board.
6. The columns i.e the anodes were connected to the pins of the shift
registers; of which the latch, clock and data pins were connected to
the Atmega 328 of the arduino development board.
7. A rectifier circuit was built using four IN4001 diodes, the capacitors,
the transformers, and the LM7805 voltage regulator to attain 5V DC.
8. The DMD program was then written and sent into the Atmega 328.
9. All the vero boards were then connected together using the male
and female connectors.
10. The 5V DC source was then connected to the Atmega 328.
11. The whole system was then packed and packaged.
2.6.3. Smart Waste-bin
In line with the smart home concept, the incubate department was
tasked to develop a smart waste bin; the bin was to be IoT based. This
project had a complete life cycle of three months. Two versions of the bin
was developed.
● Version I
This version of the waste bin featured the following
components:
● A peddler waste bin
● Two servo motors
● One ultrasonic sensor
● Infrared LEDs
● Photo-diode
● Sticks for frame work
● Buzzer
● Gum gun
A peddler bin was employed because it already had the
structural design for the project being developed. The
ultrasonic sensor was used to obtain the distance of the dirt in

40
the bin from the lid of the bin. The buzzer was to buzz after
the dirt in the bin crossed the set threshold .
Fig 2.6.3.i Ultrasonic sensor
Procedure
1. The lid of the bin was was removed and replaced by sticks;
this was because the torque of the servo motors used
would not be able to lift the lid of the bin.
2. The ultrasonic sensor was attached to the sticks.
3. Each stick was attached to a servo motor.
4. A breakout vero-board was created and on it, the infrared
LEDs(emitter & photodiode) and buzzer was soldered.
5. The ultrasonic sensor, servo motors and breakout board
were all connected to the Arduino Uno(Atmega 328).
6. The Atmega 328 was then programmed using the Arduino
IDE.

41
Fig 2.6.3.ii First breakout board for the Infrared sensors
for the version I smart bin
● Version II
The version II of the smart waste bin was necessitated because
of the need to cover up the inaccuracies of the first version
caused by the infrared LEDs; which would take months to
correct and properly calibrate. The second version was the
version of that featured one of the prospects of the bin; IoT.
The version II featured the following components:
● A peddler bin
● 2 ultrasonic sensors
● Cartons
● Gum gun
● Arduino nano
● 2 servo motors
● Fishing line
● Sim 800L module
● 1 NPN transistor (BC547)
● Small size breadboard

42
Procedure
1. The lid if the bin was removed and replaced by the
carton which was cut and modeled to the exact
size and mechanical make of the original lid.
2. An ultrasonic sensor was placed on the carton
cover so that it faced and covered the distance of
the inside of the bin
3. The other ultrasonic sensor was placed directly in
front of the bin through a dedicated space that was
cut for it.
4. The servo motors were attached to the base of the
bin using the gum gun and the horns of the servo
motors were attached by the means of the fishing
line to the peddle of the bin.
5. The Sim 800l module was connecting following it’s
datasheet to the arduino nano.
6. The servo motors and ultrasonic sensor were all
connected to the arduino nano via jumper wires
also.
7. The arduino nano was programmed so that
whenever the bin was filled, the ultrasonic sensor
inside the bin would detect that the dirt within has
crossed the set threshold and would trigger the Sim
800l module to send a text message to the user of
the bin that the bin was empty.
8. The arduino nano was also programmed so that
whenever someone approached the bin, the cover
of the bi n opened automatically by means of the
servo motors pulling the peddle of the bin.
See appendix for the source code of the smart
waste bin.

43
Fig 2.6.3 A cross section of the smart bin under development

44
2.7. Trainings & Conferences
One of the primary objectives of the hub is to provide skill acquisition in
information communication technology (ICT) via training and re-training of
youths. The hub trains it’s incubates and accepts volunteers who are also
trainable. The bootcamp program of the hub is one of the various ways
individuals are trained at the hub. The hub also carries out external trainings;
these trainings range from the training of secondary school students,
undergraduates, graduates to working staff of various organizations.
2.7.1. NYSC SAED Programs
The National Youth Service Corp (NYSC), during its orientation
program for new corp members offer what is known as Skill Acquisition
and Entrepreneurship Development (SAED) program. This program is
usually spans three or more days and attracts various organizations both
private and governmental alike. The hub is usually invited to participate
as one of the training bodies. Training by the hub is handled by the
incubates. In the six months period under review, the hub trained corp
members during the SAED program on the following:
● Embedded systems
● Basic Electronics
● Open Source: The Arduino platform
Fig 2.7.1.i Answering the questions of a corp member

45
Fig 2.7.1.ii Writing and explaining an arduino code to the corp members
Fig 2.7.1.iii Explaining the Arduino Platform to the corp members

46
2.7.2. NITDA Sponsored trainings
Nigeria Information Technology Development Agency(NITDA) is a
federal government agency mandated to create a framework for the
planning, research, development, standardization, application,
coordination, monitoring, evaluation and regulation of Information
Technology practices, activities and systems in Nigeria.
NITDA is the clearing house for all IT projects and infrastructural
development in the country. It is the prime Agency for e-government
implementation, Internet governance and general IT development in
Nigeria.NITDA also performs the role of a training body for all Nigerians on
Information Technology.
In the six moths under review, the hub took part in two NITDA
sponsored trainings.
Fig 2.7.2.i Cross section while setting up the Ruwatronik Demo
Fig 2.7.2.ii cross section while assisting a mentor

47
Fig 2.7.2.iii cross section while explaining the Raspbian OS to corp
members
Fig 2.7.2.iv cross section while taking questions from the corp
members

48
2.7.3. Nigeria Internet Governance Forum
The Nigeria Internet governance forum is an annual event co-
organized by Nigeria Communications Commission(NCC), Nigeria
Information Technology Development Agency(NITDA), Internet Society,
among others. The aim of the forum is to review and develop the
protocols governing the cyberspace of Nigeria and the need to sensitize
Nigerians on existing technologies and how to tap into them.
Fig 2.7.2 A cross section during the NIGF conference
2.7.4. Start-Up Friday
The Start-Up Friday programme is a scheme designed by the Office
for ICT Innovation & Entrepreneurship (OIIE); a subsidiary of Nigeria
Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) with the aim of
bridging start-up growth gap by enriching the development processes of
new tech-driven businesses through meet-ups with successful
entrepreneurs, investors, mentors, venture capitalists, technology buyers,
and enthusiasts inn major tech clusters across the country.

49
Fig 2.7.4 A cross section while at Start-Up Friday pitching
2.7.5. Community Development Services
TD4PAI being a Non-government, Non-profit organization offers
community services as a way of giving back to the area in which the hub
is located.
Some of the services offered include:
● Training of community youths on basic computer appreciation
● Training of young school levers on embedded electronics.
● The hub serves as the computer lab and training center for a
primary school in the community: Darul-ulum International
Academy.
● Provision of bore-hole water for the community.
● Provision of Free Internet Access for the community.

50
Fig 2.7.5.i Teaching students of Darul-ulum International Academy on bits
and bytes
Fig 2.7.5.ii teaching the students on parts of a keyboard.

51
Chapter Three
Conclusion
3.1. Inference
In the twenty four weeks under review, knowledge on how the industry
works was gained. Technology Development for Poverty Alleviation Initiative
(TD4PAI) being an upstream ICT start-up incubator and accelerator has instilled
the knowledge of how start-up companies are built from scratch, registered,
groomed and run.
Knowledge on embedded devices, embedded technology, semi-conductor
physics & technology, digital electronics, micro-controllers, sensors and
actuators has been gained. With this knowledge, several projects were
embarked on; and the possibility of building a start-up company from these
projects was seen.
Knowledge on computer programming was also gained, with focus on
arduino and python. Different sort algorithms were practiced. The concept of
data science was introduced.
The Linux operating system was introduced and the need to be able to
manage, prototype with and administer Linux systems was made known. The
Debian platform was introduced and worked with, bash scripting and the samba
platform among other capabilities of the Linux operating system was made
known.
Knowledge on emerging technologies such as Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID), Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Light
Fidelity(Li-Fi), etc and the need of Nigeria to dive into them was gained.
Knowledge of the PN532 chip (which is an RFID and Near Field communication,
NFC chip) was also gained as that is what the hub’s sampson board is based on.
Skills on how to teach and imbibe knowledge into both children and adults
alike was also gained as both primary school children, school leavers as well as
National Youth Service Corp members were trained and tutored by the hub.
In the twenty four months under review, the need to diversify the Nation’s
economy through technological innovations was seen. The need to spark-up
awareness of Technological advances in the Nigerian youth and populace at
large was also seen. Most importantly, the need to train Nigerian youths on
embedded technology was also seen.

52
3.2. Recommendations
With the industrial experience gained after the six months industrial
training, I hereby make the following recommendation:
1. Semi-conductor physics, a branch of solid state physics should be taken
very seriously by the Nigerian Government and introduced as a field of
study offered by Nigerian Tertiary institutions.
2. Nigerian Youths right from secondary school level should be made aware of
emerging technologies and taught extensively on basic electronics.
3. Computer programming, algorithms and mathematical concepts should also
be taken seriously and emphasis should be laid on it as it now the backbone
on which the digital age replies on.
4. The Nigerian government should venture into technological innovations and
exploit it to diversify the nation’s economy.
5. Computer literacy should be brought into rural communities through
government training centers in such areas.
6. Nigerian youths should be enlightened on entrepreneurship and wealth
creation through the creation of technological inclined start-up companies.
7. The technical know-how should be brought to the door steps of the Nigerian
Students.
8. Government should hold all technology inclined international conferences in
the tertiary institutions.
9. In order to protect the future of the country and make the country
technologically independent, the government and the Nigerian people
should have a change of mentality, orientating and re-orientating all
Nigerians on the high importance of Physics, Mathematics, Computer
science, and related fields.
10. All governmental agencies should be properly regulated and checked from
on from time to time.

53
3.3. References
Brock C, (2013). Arduino projects for dummies.[pdf version] John Wiley &
sons Ltd, Chichester, West Sussex, England.
Marko Švaljek, (2015). Arduino succinctly. Syncfusion Inc, Morrisville, USA.
Christopher Negus, (2015). Linux bible, (Ninth Edition).[pdf version]. John
Wiley & sons Inc, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Jason Cannon, (2014). Linux succinctly.[pdf version]. Syncfusion Inc,
Morrisville, USA.
Al Sweigart, (2015). Automate the boring stuff with python.[pdf version].
William Pollock Publishing, No Starch Press Inc, San Francisco,
California, USA.
John Paul Mueller, (2014). Beginning programming with python for
dummies.[pdf version]. John Wiley & sons inc, Hoboken, New Jersey,
USA.
Ijasali Manalody, (2008). Computer programming.[pdf version]. Baabtra
PowerPoint Presentation.
Dummies, (2015, July). Examining the elements of a basic RFID system.
http://www.dummies.com/education/science/science-
electronics/examining-the-elements-of-a-basic-rfid-system/
Sparkfun, (2014, May). Through hole soldering. Retrieved from:
https://www.learn.sparkfun.com/how-to-solder-through-hole-
soldering/.
Dummies, (2015, July). What the heck is RFID?. Retrieved from:
http://www.dummies.com/education/science/science-
electronics/what-the-heck-is-rfid/.
Sparkfun, (2015, June). PCB basics. Retrieved from:
https://www.learn.sparkfun.com/pcb-basics/.
John Zelle M, (2002). Python programming: An introduction to computer
science.[pdf version]. LATEX 2E & Wartburg College Printing Services.
Ronald J. Tocci, Neal S. Widmer, Gregory L. Moss, (2017). Digital systems:
Principles and applications.[pdf version]. R.R Donnelley . Pearson
Education Inc.
Francisco J. Carabez, (2015). RFID technologies. Retrieved from:
www.slideshare.net/carabez/rfid-technologies
Jinesh Patel, (2015). Sensors and Actuators. Retrieved from:
www.slideshare.net/jineshrachana/sensors-and-actuator.

54
Appendix
● Table I
This table gives the colour coding for fixed value resistors. Fixed value
resistors come in 4, 5 or 6 bands.
Colour Value Tolerance
Value
Temperature
Coefficient(ppm)
Multiplier
Black 0 100
Brown 1 ±1% 100 101
Red 2 ±2% 50 102
Orange 3 15 103
Yellow 4 25 104
Green 5 ±5% 105
Blue 6 ±0.25% 106
Violet 7 ±0.1% 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
No band ±20%
● For 4 band resistors, the first colour gives the first value, the second
colour gives the second value, the third colour gives the multiplier,
the last colour gives the tolerance of the resistor. For example, a
resistor with colour: red, red, brown, gold has a value of 220Ω
because red = 2, red = 2, brown = 101, gold = ±5%
2 2 x 101 = 220Ω ±5%.
colour gives the second value, the third colour give the third value,
the fourth colour gives the multiplier, the fifth colour gives the
tolerance.
colour gives the second value, the third colour gives the third value,

55
the fourth colour give the multiplier, the fifth colour gives the
tolerance, the sixth colour gives the temperature coefficient.
● Source code for the Robotic Arm
#include <Servo.h>
Servo base;
Servo one ;
Servo two;
Servo three;
Servo four;
int potone = A0;
int pottwo = A1;
int potthree = A2;
Int potfour = A3;
float k = 5.683333333;
void setup()
{
base.attach(9);
one.attach(10);
two.attach(11);
three.attach(12);
pinMode(potone, INPUT);
pinMode(pottwo, INPUT);
pinMode(potthree, INPUT);
}
void loop()
{

56
{
int a = analogRead(potone);
a = a/k;
base.write(a);
}
{
int b = analogRead(pottwo);
b = map(b, 0, 1023, 0, 140);
one.write(b);
delay(15);
}
{
int c = analogRead(pottwo);
c = map(c, 0, 1023, 140, 0);
two.write(c);
delay(15);
}
{
int d = analogRead(potthree);
d = map(d, 0, 1023, 0, 180);
three.write(d);
}
{
Int e = analogRead(potfour);
e = map(e, 0,1023, 0,180);
four.write(e)

57
}
}
● Source code for the smart waste bin
#include <Sim800l.h>
#include <Servo.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
bool error;
int top_trig = 4;
int top_echo = 6;
int front_trig = 7;
int front_echo =8;
float timer1;
float timer2;
float top_distance;
float front_distance;
Servo servo1;
Servo servo2;
Sim800l Sim800l;
bool smss = false;
void setup()
{
pinMode(top_trig, OUTPUT);
pinMode(top_echo, INPUT);
pinMode(front_trig, OUTPUT);
pinMode(front_echo, INPUT);

58
servo1.attach(3);
servo2.attach(5);
Serial.begin(9600);
Sim800l.begin();
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite(front_trig, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(front_trig, LOW);
timer1 = pulseIn(front_echo, HIGH);
front_distance = (0.034 * timer1)/2;
// Serial.print(front_distance);
Serial.print(" ");
//delay(2000);
if (front_distance <= 40)
{
servo1.write(0);
servo2.write(180);
//Serial.println("open");
delay(3000);
}
else
{
servo1.write(180);
servo2.write(0);

59
//Serial.println("close");
delay(3000);
}
digitalWrite(top_trig, HIGH);
digitalWrite(top_trig, LOW);
timer2 = pulseIn(top_echo, HIGH);
top_distance = (0.034 * timer2)/2;
Serial.println(top_distance);
// sms();
if (top_distance <=10 and smss == false)
{
error=Sim800l.sendSms("07062226816","SmartBin: I'm full");
smss = true;
}
}
● PCB Terminology
● Annular ring - the ring of copper around a plated through hole in a PCB.
● DRC- design rule check. A software check of your design to make sure the
design does not contain errors such as traces that incorrectly touch, traces too
skinny, or drill holes that are too small.
● Drill hit - places on a design where a hole should be drilled, or where they
actually were drilled on the board. Inaccurate drill hits caused by dull bits are a
common manufacturing issue.

60
● Finger - exposed metal pads along the edge of a board, used to create a
connection between two circuit boards.
● Mouse bites - an alternative to v-score for separating boards from panels. A
number of drill hits are clustered close together, creating a weak spot where
the board can be broken easily after the fact.
● Pad - a portion of exposed metal on the surface of a board to which a
component is soldered.
● Panel - a larger circuit board composed of many smaller boards which will be
broken apart before use.
● Paste stencil - a thin, metal (or sometimes plastic) stencil which lies over the
board, allowing solder paste to be deposited in specific areas during assembly.
● Pick-and-place - the machine or process by which components are placed on a
circuit board.
● Plane - a continuous block of copper on a circuit board, define by borders rather
than by a path. Also commonly called a “pour”.
● Plated through hole - a hole on a board which has an annular ring and which
is plated all the way through the board. May be a connection point for a
through hole component, a via to pass a signal through, or a mounting hole.
● Pogo pin - spring-loaded contact used to make a temporary connection for test
or programming purposes.
● Reflow - melting the solder to create joints between pads and component leads.
● Silkscreen - the letters, number, symbols and imagery on a circuit board.
Usually only one color is available, and resolution is usually fairly low.
● Slot - any hole in a board which is not round. Slots may or may not be plated.
Slots sometimes add to add cost to the board because they require extra cut-
out time.
● Solder paste - small balls of solder suspended in a gel medium which, with the
aid of a paste stencil, are applied to the surface mount pads on a PCB before
the components are placed. During reflow, the solder in the paste melts,
creating electrical and mechanical joints between the pads and the component.
● Solder pot - a pot used to quickly hand solder boards with through hole
components. Usually contains a small amount of molten solder into which the
board is quickly dipped, leaving solder joints on all exposed pads.

61
● Soldermask - a layer of protective material laid over the metal to prevent short
circuits, corrosion, and other problems. Frequently green, although other colors
can be used.
● Solder jumper - a small, unwanted blob of solder connecting two adjacent pins
on a component on a circuit board.
● Surface mount - construction method which allows components to be simply
set on a board, not requiring that leads pass through holes in the board. This is
the dominant method of assembly in use today, and allows boards to be
populated quickly and easily.
● Thermal - a small trace used to connect a pad to a plane. If a pad is not
thermally relieved, it becomes difficult to get the pad to a high enough
temperature to create a good solder joint. An improperly thermally relieved
pad will feel “sticky” when you attempt to solder to it, and will take an
abnormally long time to reflow.
● Thieving - hatching, gridlines, or dots of copper left in areas of a board where
no plane or traces exist. Reduces difficulty of etching because less time in the
bath is required to remove unneeded copper.
● Trace - a continuous path of copper on a circuit board.
● V-score- a partial cut through a board, allowing the board to be easily snapped
along a line.
● Via - a hole in a board used to pass a signal from one layer to another. Tented
vias are covered by soldermask to protect them from being soldered to. Vias
where connectors and components are to be attached are often untented
(uncovered) so that they can be easily soldered.
● Wave solder - a method of soldering used on boards with through-hole
components where the board is passed over a standing wave of molten solder,
which adheres to exposed pads and component leads.

SIWES Industrial Training report (NIGERIA)

Recomendados

Recomendados

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Mais procurados (20)

Semelhante a SIWES Industrial Training report (NIGERIA)

Semelhante a SIWES Industrial Training report (NIGERIA) (20)

Mais de Stephen Ahiante

Mais de Stephen Ahiante (6)

Último

Último (20)

SIWES Industrial Training report (NIGERIA)