2. LearningLearning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.
3. Roots in TraditionalRoots in Traditional
Learning ThemesLearning Themes
You are what you have experiencedYou are what you have experienced
Learning occurs via outcomesLearning occurs via outcomes
– (rewards and punishments)(rewards and punishments)
– Best to study animalsBest to study animals
9. Classical Conditioning and Ivan
Pavlov
Russian physiologist who studied
digestion
Used dogs to study salivation when
dogs were presented with meat powder
Also known as Pavlovian or
Respondent Conditioning
Reflex: Automatic, non-learned
response
10. Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that
activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of
food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in
his early experiments.
12. Theories of LearningTheories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
13.
14. Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened
by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d).
Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened
by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d).
An Example
16. Operant Conditioning
Behavior is the function of its
consequences
• People learn to behave to get something they want
or to avoid something they don’t want.
------------------------------------
Behaviour Consequence
•Work is payed
•Talks to others meets more people
•Enters to restaurant Obtains food
•Enters Library Finds a book
•Increase productivity Received merit pay
17. The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant
conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant
conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
18. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
An example
19. ig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child
said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a
polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re
welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al.,
1990
ig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child
said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a
polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re
welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al.,
1990
20.
21.
22. Dr
Shahram
Yazdani
2
Key Principles: CognitivismKey Principles: Cognitivism
Learning is a change of knowledge state
Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and
structuring by the learner.
Learner is viewed as an active participant in
the learning process
Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisite
relationships of content)
Emphasis on structuring, organizign and
sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing
23. 1. Learning is Constructive1. Learning is Constructive
Constructivism: People combine existing knowledge
with new information to build new knowledge
Learning = constructing meaning
Students need to make their own discoveries and
thus construct their own knowledge
Duckworth (2006) on Piaget: Create a classroom
where students can discover
*Piaget & others
3
25. Increasing Probability of BehaviourIncreasing Probability of Behaviour
One of the most important consequences that
influences behaviour is reinforcement.
Reinforcement is the process by which stimuli
strengthen behaviours.
A reinforcer is a stimulus that follows some
behaviour and increases or maintains the
probability of that behaviour.
25
26. Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement
The application or addition of a stimulus that
increases or maintains the probability of some
behaviour.
The reinforcer is dependent or contingent on the
occurrence of some desired behaviour.
E.g., If you participate in class (increase or maintain behaviour), then
you will earn high participation marks (application of stimulus)
26
27. Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement
The removal of a stimulus from a situation that
increases or maintains the probability of some
behaviour.
Negative reinforcement occurs when a response
prevents some event or stimulus from occurring.
E.g., If you participate in class (increase or maintain
behaviour), then I will stop calling on you (removal
of stimulus)
28. Reducing Probability of BehaviourReducing Probability of Behaviour
Sometimes learned behaviours are detrimental to
the operation of an organization and they need to be
reduced or eliminated.
There are two strategies that can reduce the
probability of learned behaviour:
– Extinction
– Punishment
28
29. ExtinctionExtinction
The gradual dissipation of behaviour following the
termination of reinforcement.
If the behaviour is not reinforced, it will gradually
dissipate or be extinguished.
E.g., If you talk to your peers while others are
speaking (unwanted behaviour), then I will stop
smiling.
29
30. PunishmentPunishment
The application of an aversive stimulus following
unwanted behaviour to decrease the probability of
that behaviour.
A nasty stimulus is applied after some undesirable
behaviour in order to decrease the probability of
that behaviour.
E.g., If you talk to your peers while others are
speaking (unwanted behaviour), then I will ask you
if you would like to share your conversation with the
class (aversive stimulus).
30
32. Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
33. 33
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
34. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
•Response are elicited from a
person (reactive
•Response are emitted by a person
(Reactive)
•Response are fixed to a stimulus
( No choice)
•Reponses are variable in types and
degree (Choice)
•CS is stimulus such as sound, an
object or person
•CS is situation such as office, a
social setting, a specific set of
circumstances
•Reinforcement is not received by
choice
•Person is instrumental in securing
reinforcement by operating in the
environment
Difference B/W Classical and Operant conditioning
35. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.
36. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
37. Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
(circus)
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
38. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.
39. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
Pay cheque
every month
Boss visit to
employee
Piece rating or
bonus for every
given amount of
sales
Jack pot
41. 2–41
OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications
Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.
Notas do Editor
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to the experience of learning.
It recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn.
Individuals make choices about what new ideas to accept and how to fit then into their established views of the world (Brooks & Brooks, 1995).
Learners are active
What do people see? map; side of a cow; a bearded man
WE ALL SEE THINGS DIFFERENTLY!
What each person 'sees' (or 'observes') depends more on what is already stored in that person's brain than on light being emitted (or not) from the image.
We project onto phenomena what we already know about them.
We each construct a unique mental image by combining information in our heads with the information we receive from our sense organs (in this case, our eyes).
Learning from our environment is an active, rather than a passive, process.”
Gestalt theory; 'a whole is different than the sum of its parts.’