Lifetime Effect of Coors Light on the Environment

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Lifetime Effect of Drinking Coors
Light on the Environment
By:
Sean Garrity
For:
Grade 11 University Chemistry
SCH3U1
Sir Winston Churchill
17 June 2013

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Table of Contents
Page #
3-9 Lifetime Effect of Drinking Coors Light on the Environment
10-12 Bibliography APA Format
13-16 Appendix A: Calculations
17-47 Appendix B: Research Pages

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Background Information
Effects on the environment are categorized in to three varieties; probably the most
famous of the three is the carbon footprint. A carbon footprint is defined as the sum of all
greenhouse gases emitted directly or indirectly; an example is burning diesel fuel to
transport products. The next footprint I calculated was the water footprint, which is the
amount of water used directly or indirectly by an individual, company, or organization;
an example is using water to clean a car. The remaining footprint is the ecological
footprint; an ecological footprint is the impact on the environment to support human
activities, such as mining. To summarize, everyone in the world makes an impact on the
environment no matter if it’s big or small, bad or good and it is important that we
understand our choices and their impacts on the environment so we can make conscious
choices to reduce our impacts on the environment.
Carbon foot print Information
Calculating a carbon footprint can be time consuming and complex for many
reasons. In the highly automated and industrialized production of Coors Light, almost
every step produces some form of carbon footprint. The common misconception with a
carbon footprint is that it only pertains to the emissions of CO2, when in fact it
encompasses emissions of any type of greenhouse gas (GHG) such as: water vapour,
methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide [Mr. Pilot]. You might find yourself asking
how these gases acquired the name “greenhouse gas”; well it was not just an arbitrary
choice, it just so happens that these gases are labelled greenhouse gases because they
allow the earth’s atmosphere to act like a greenhouse. These gases are very important
because they trap heat in and regulate the temperatures and climates of the world.
Greenhouse gases are vital to life on earth and without them earth would be a barren
wasteland. But if there is too much green house gas, then the atmosphere will trap too
much heat and it will become too hot to support life on earth. On top of contributing to
global warming an excess of GHG adds to smog levels [greenliving.nationalgeographic],
an increase in smog levels can lead to many different health complications especially for
seniors and infants. Smog can weaken your immune system causing you to get sick more
often, decrease your lungs working capacity, or smog can worsen your asthma
[Clarington]. All of these health complications can lead to overcrowded hospitals which
causes a larger carbon footprint because more people are driving to the hospital and the
hospital is using more resources to treat the ill, so emitting GHG also indirectly causes
more greenhouse gas to be emitted.

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Carbon Footprint
To quantify the entire carbon footprint of drinking Coors Light over a lifetime, I
broke the process down into two parts: the production of the beer can and the production
of the actual beer. The first piece of information I found was the amount of beer
consumed over a lifetime, it turns out that the average American consumes 13,248 cans
of beer [greencontributor.com]. To figure out the amount of aluminum used to make
these cans I found that the average empty beer can weighs 14.7 grams [the aluminum can
group] and multiplied this by the amount of cans to find that the amount of aluminum
needed is 194.7kgs[1]. This is helpful but it can not be used to calculate any footprints just
yet; pure aluminum does not exist in nature it must be mined from bauxite ore and highly
refined before it is of any use. For every tonne of aluminum 4.4tonnes of bauxite are
needed [Mr. Pilot] so in total 856.9kgs[2] of bauxite are needed. Mining the bauxite does
not cause a significant carbon footprint because it would only take a matter of seconds for
a machine to extract 856.9kgs of ore, but after the ore is out of the ground it must be
crushed. I found out that it takes about 153 MJ to crush a tonne of bauxite [world-
aluminum] this energy is produced by diesel fuel; diesel fuel produces 45.5MJ/kg [world-
aluminum]. To calculate the carbon footprint of crushing the bauxite we must first solve
for the amount of fuel consumed, it turns out 2.9kgs[4] of diesel must be burnt. Now that
the mass of the fuel is known we can use stoichiometry to determine the mass of CO2
produced. Stoichiometry is the relationships between mater taking place in a reaction.
The first step in using stoichiometry is to determine what type of reaction is occurring;
crushing bauxite takes power which in this case is produced by burning or combusting
diesel fuel to power a machine. In every combustion reaction carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water vapor (H2O) are created [Mr. Pilot] so the equation will look as it does in (figure
1.0). The next step in solving for the mass of CO2 is to balance the equation. It is very
important to balance the equation properly so that molar ratios can be utilized; without a
balanced equation the mass of CO2 can not be found. The balanced equation will look
like (figure 1.1). After the equation is balanced the next step is to fill in the information
that is known this equation will look like (figure 1.2). After the known information is
input the next step is to solve for moles, to find moles the equation mol (n) = mass/molar
mass is used. Once the moles of a reactant are found in a balanced equation you can use
the molar ratio to determine the moles of a product in our case CO2. The molar ratio is
determined by the numbers that are used to balance the equation, if the ratio of x:y is 1:2
then to the moles of y can be determined by multiplying the moles of x by 2. Once the
moles of the product are found the equation mass= molar mass*moles is used to find the
mass of CO2. These equations and principles are the cornerstones of stoichiometry and
are used all through out this essay. All in all just the process of crushing the Bauxite
creates 9.1kgs of CO2 (figure 1.3).
After the bauxite is crushed it must be refined in to alumina, although there are
many bauxite refineries in the world the most practical refinery for the bauxite involved
in making beer cans for Coors Light is the refinery in Gramercy Louisiana. As you can
imagine there is a very large carbon footprint associated with transporting the bauxite to
Gramercy Louisiana from the mine in Kirkvine Jamaica. The bauxite must first travel
110kms by truck from the mine to the port in Montego Bay; next it travels about
2000kms from Montego Bay to the port in New Orleans [Google Maps] where it travels

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75kms by truck to Gramercy Louisiana. In total the ore has to travel 185kms by transport
truck which results in burning 73Litres of diesel fuel [5] [Diesel-Fuel]. The ore also has to
travel 2000kms by cargo ship; the average 8000 container cargo ship consumes bunker
fuel at a rate of 225tons/day at a normal speed of 44.5km/h [people.hofstra.edu]. So
during the 2000km ocean voyage the ship travels for 45 hours(roughly 1.87 days)[6] and
consumes 382,688.0kgs of diesel[7]. This seems like an insanely high number but as
previously stated the container ship carries 8000 containers, hence if you divide the
amount of fuel by 8000 you get the amount of fuel to ship one container which turns out
to be 47.8kgs[8] and since we are only shipping 856.9kgs we can fit all of our ore into one
container. In total 342.7kgs of CO2 is created (figure 2).
After the bauxite is crushed it has to be refined into alumina, this is referred to as
the bayer process. During the bayer process the bauxite is exposed to high temperature
and high pressure, the temperature is usually around 200 degrees C and the pressure is
determined by the temperature at 240 degrees C the pressure is about 35 atm [world
aluminum.org]. Next I determined that 1713.8kgs of alumina[9] are needed since the ratio
of alumina to aluminum is 2:1 [Mr. Pilot]. I then found the average specific energy
consumption to produce alumina which is around 14.5 GJ per1000kg of alumina
[bauxite.world-aluminium.org]. So in total 24.9GJs[10] where needed to make the amount
of alumina; this is enough power to power 6,944,444 60 watt light bulbs for 1 minute;
luckily I picked the alumina smelter in Gramercy Louisiana which is powered by the
Waterford 3 nuclear power plant 16 miles away [city-data.com/city/Gramercy-
Louisiana]. Since nuclear power is so efficient the uranium needed to create this amount
of power is a few grams since a single 1kg rod of uranium lasts over a year and produces
1TJ or 1000GJs[cna.ca/nuclear_facts]. To conclude there is no carbon footprint
associated with the bayer process.
The bauxite refinery in Gramercy Louisiana only refines bauxite to alumina and
does not convert the alumina to aluminum since it does not have an aluminum smelter, so
the alumina must be transported to the New Madrid Missouri 822km away. Using diesel
fuel in a transport truck 324.7L[11] would be needed. With a density of 0.832kg/L [Diesel-
Fuel] we found that 270.2kg[12] of diesel fuel would be used, furthermore I used
stoichiometry to determine that 852.6kgs of CO2 is created (figure 3).
At the aluminum smelter in New Madrid Missouri the alumina is combined with
electricity in a container called a cryolite. The electricity is passed through the carbon
lining of the cryolite this process splits the alumina into molten aluminum and CO2. As
you can imagine this process uses a lot of electricity and is therefore expensive and
harmful to the environment [aluminum.org]. The New Madrid smelter is fuelled by
bituminous coal which is one of the dirtiest forms of creating power but it is very cheap.
As previously alluded to it takes a tremendous amount of power to smelt the aluminum in
fact it takes roughly 20,000KWH to make 1000kgs of aluminum. This is 72GJ, almost 3
times the amount of power used in the bayer process [Kenedy, n.d]. Since 194.7kgs[1] of
aluminum is needed, 3894KWHs[13] of electricity are needed, this amount of power could
power the average American house for 4 months [eia.gov]. Consequently 3894kgs of coal
are needed because it turns out that 1kg of bituminous coal yields 1KWH [Kenedy, n.d].

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Although 3894kgs[13] of coal are needed, only 2725.8kgs[14] of the coal is carbon since
bituminous coal is only 70% carbon [Mr. Pilot]. when 2725.8kgs[14] of carbon are
combusted 9986.3kgs of CO2 are created (figure 4).
The aluminum must now be transported to a processing plant so it can be made
into actual cans. The processing plant is in Chicago, Illinois which is 666kms from New
Madrid. Using diesel fuel again in a transport truck, and using the density of diesel fuel as
0.832kg/L [Diesel-Fuel], I found that 218.8kgs[16] of diesel fuel was needed creating
690.6kgs of CO2 (figure 5).
During the can processing step the aluminum, no chemical reactions take place so
the only factor to account for is the power it takes to run the plant. The average aluminum
can manufacturer produces an average of 100 billion cans per year [madehow.com],
which is 273.9 million cans per day, 11.4 million cans per hour, and 190.2 thousand cans
per minute(figure 6). Since over a life time the average amount of beer cans is only
13,248, it would only take seconds to create. This would not create a significant carbon
footprint since advances in modern technology have lead to such efficient can processing
factories.
At this point in time the beer cans must now be transported to a brewery; I picked
the Coors Light Brewery in Golden Colorado because Coors Light is the most consumed
beer in Ontario [Beer Store]. The cans must travel 1627.0kms from the can processing
plant in Chicago to the brewery in Golden Colorado [Google Maps]; this journey burns
534.2kgs[18] of diesel fuel [Diesel-Fuel] and creates 1685.8kgs of CO2 (figure 7).
Once the cans are at the plant they must be filled and sealed so they can be
prepared for the last step, shipping the beer to its final destination. Although Coors
Light guards their recipe, beer consists of four main ingredients: water, yeast, hops,
and barley. To make a lifetime supply of beer 4703.04 litres of water are needed,
1.3kgs of yeast are needed, 10.5kgs of hops are needed, and 541.0kgs of barley are
needed. Using this much water would not make a significant carbon footprint
because an average water treatment plant treats a huge amount of water. Using
1.3kgs of yeast would not produce a significant carbon footprint either since the
yeast is such a miniscule amount. Unlike some other beers no hops are used in the
production of Coors Light, instead they use “tetrahop” is an aqueous alkaline
solution that simulates hop flavour. Tetrahop has no aroma which is a distinct
characteristic of beer, but tetrahop is more resilient to spoil from sunlight and
significantly cheaper then using real hops [beeriety]. Although I don’t have access to
the Coors Light recipe, to make a lifetime supply of beer roughly 1.5 litres of
tetrahop is needed, this would not produce any significant effect carbon footprint
[hop union]. Although none of the other ingredients would cause a significant
carbon footprint the production of the barley would. On average one acre yields
34kgs of barley [byo.com], so 16acres[22] are needed to produce enough barley for a
lifetime supply of beer. This barley is grown by Coors Light and they do not specify how
much fertilizer they use [barley.idaho.gov], but the average amount of nitrogen fertilizer
used is 27.2kgs/acre so in total 435.5kgs[24] are needed. To produce 1kg of nitrogen

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fertilizer it takes 0.6kgs of natural gas [yara.com]; in total it takes 261.3kgs[25] of
natural gas and produces 716.8kgs of CO2 (figure 9). Since Colorado is one of the United
States leaders in barley production this barley comes from local farms near by the Coors
Light malt house and would not produce a significant transportation emission
[redorbit.com].
The last step in making beer is shipping the finished product to its final
destination. The beer must travel 2031kms from Golden Colorado to Thunder Bay
[Google maps]. A transport truck would consume 666.8kgs[20] of diesel fuel from
travelling this far emitting 2104.4kgs of CO2 (figure 8).
Water Footprint Information
Calculating a detailed water footprint of an industrialized process such as the
production of Coors Light can be incredibly difficult. Water footprints are frequently
created directly and indirectly in factories such as the Coors Light brewery in a variety of
ways, a water footprint can be created from something as simple as cleaning machinery
to cooling equipment. It is important to realize that water footprints can be created so
easily and that our human actions can easily have adverse effects on the environment.
Although the water to produce Coors Light is taken from the Rocky Mountains, which is
a very plentiful resource it is vital to the wildlife and ecosystem and it is very important
the water is not polluted. At Golden Colorado the Rocky Mountains flow into Cedar
Creek which flows through the center of the city and is an integral part of life in Golden
Colorado. Apart from boating and canoeing, Cedar Creek provides great fishing and is
stocked with rainbow trout [hookandbullet.com], Rainbow Trout are very susceptible to
pollution and so the fact that they are able to live in the Cedar Creek shows that there is
minimal pollution.
Water Footprint
The most obvious water footprint associated with the lifetime consumption of
beer is the use of water as an ingredient in beer. It turns out that the water used in beer
has a huge effect on its taste [realbeer.com] for example Coors Light only uses water
from the Rocky Mountains, where Guinness uses water from Ireland and the two beers
taste completely different. Although the beers are completely different for many other
reasons like the hops and yeast, the difference in water does play a significant role in
effecting the taste. To find the amount of water needed to produce the lifetime supply of
beer I first needed to determine how much water is in a can of beer, it turns out that in a
355ml can of beer there are 355mls of water [realbeer.com]. So in total 4703.0L[21] of
water are removed from the Rocky Mountains.
Coors Light like most beer contains barley; the main use of barley is in the
production of beer although it is also used in health foods. Barley is similar to wheat and
can be grown in almost any type of climate; barley is grown all over the world in
countries such as: Russia, Canada, Turkey, Spain, and Germany. Although barley can be
grown almost anywhere it takes a lot of water to produce barley, it takes roughly 1300
litres to produce 1kg of barley [muntons.com], in total it takes about 703,300L[23]. This

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water would probably be taken from the Rocky Mountains since this barley is grown in
very close proximity to the Coors Light brewery.
Ecological Footprint Information
Calculating the ecological footprint of a highly automatic process like the
production of Coors Light is incredibly complex. An ecological footprint is the impact on
the environment to support human activities; in the production of aluminum cans many
ecological footprints are caused directly or indirectly. Most of the ecological footprints
happen far away from Thunder Bay the bulk of them happen at the mine where the ore is
extracted. Ecological footprints can be linked to many human activities if you dig a hole
or cut down a single tree you have created an ecological footprint, during the mass
production of any product ecological footprints are created left and right.
Ecological footprint
To determine the associated ecological footprint with producing these cans I
multiplied 194.7kgs by 4.4 to find the amount of bauxite needed [Mr. Pilot]. I determined
that 856.9kgs are needed, next I found the average world wide density of bauxite mined
from International Aluminum Institute mines which is 5600kg/m3
.[world-aluminum] So
0.15m3
of bauxite are needed. The cubed root of 0.15 is 0.53 so the hole will need to be
0.53 meters wide by 0.53 meters long and the depth will be how much overburden there
is above the bauxite. I then found out the average overburden from bauxite mines was
6m[world-aluminum] so the dimensions of the hole needed to be dug to reach the bauxite
would be 6.00m (depth) 0.53m (width) 0.53m (length) the volume of this hole is 1.72 m3
.
Then I determined that the earth at the mine was limestone, the density of limestone is
2300kg/ m3
and multiplied 1.72 by 2300 which gave us 3947.9kgs which is just all of the
limestone needed to be removed to get to the bauxite [Jamaica Bauxite Institute]. So the
total ecological footprint is removing 856.9kgs of bauxite and removing 3947.9kgs of
limestone to get to the bauxite, and then removing 4804.8kgs of limestone to fill the hole
in the earth at the mine. This is not the only ecological footprint associated with
producing a lifetimes supply of Coors Light, the amount of fuel used to transport the
materials and the amount of fuel needed to power the process of creating a lifetime
supply of Coors light. In total 261.3kgs of natural gas, 3894kgs of bituminous coal, and
1801.4kgs of diesel fuel must be removed to produce the lifetime supply of Coors Light.
Summary
To conclude effects, on the environment are categorized in to three varieties:
carbon footprint, water footprint, and ecological footprint. The total carbon foot print of
drinking Coors Light over a lifetime is emitting 16,388.3kgs of CO2; this is a reasonable
figure because in my research I found that to make a bottle of beer it creates a carbon
footprint of 0.9kgs of CO2 [guardian.co.uk], I found that 1.2kgs of CO2 is created per can
of beer. Some discrepancies in the numbers can be caused by: the difference between a
can and a bottle, transportation, and the ingredients in the beer. The total water footprint
of consuming Coors Light over a lifetime is removing 708,003.0L of water from the
Rocky Mountains. The total ecological footprint of drinking Coors Light over a lifetime
is removing: 856.9kgs bauxite, 8752.7kgs limestone, 261.3kgs of natural gas, 3894kgs of
bituminous coal, and 1801.4kgs of diesel fuel. It is important to remember that all
numbers are estimations and would be higher because I have not calculated every factor;

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for example the paint needed on the aluminum beer cans was not accounted for. To
summarize, everyone in the world makes an impact on the environment no matter if it’s
big or small, bad or good and it is important that we understand our choices and their
impacts on the environment so we can make conscious choices to reduce our impacts on
the environment.

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option=com_content&view=article&id=121

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Appendix A: Calculations
Production of Can
Mining of Bauxite
13,248*0.0147=194.7kgs [1]
194.7*4.4= 856.9kgs [2]
Crushing of Bauxite
153X0.8569=131.11MJ [3]
131.11/45.5=2.881 [4]
C12H23 + O2 H2O + CO2
(Figure 1.0)
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
(Figure 1.1)
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 2881g M= ????g
Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/mol
N = ????mol N= mol
(Figure 1.2)
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 2881g M= 9092.5g
N = 17.2mol N= 206.6mol
(Figure 1.3)
Transportation of Bauxite to Refinery
185/ 2.53=73Litres [5]
2000/44.5=45 (the ship travels for 45 hours or roughly 1.87 days) [6]
1.87X225=421.8tons=382,688.0kgs. [7]
382,688.0/8000=47.8kgs [8]
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 108,572g [47.8kgs+73L(0.832)density of diesel fuel] M = 342,654.0g

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N = 649.0mol N= 7787.6mol
(Figure 2)
Bayer Process
856.9*2= 1713.8kgs [9]
1.7138*14.5= 24.9GJ [10]
Transportation to Aluminum Smelting Plant
822/ 2.53= 324Litres [11]
324*0.832= 270.2kg [12]
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 270,150.4g M= 852,596.6g
N = 1614.8mol N= 19,377.19mol
(Figure 3)
Smelting Process
C + O2 CO2 + ENERGY
M = 272,5800g** M= 9,986,278.1g
N = 226,960.9mol N= 226,960.9mol
(Figure 4)
20,000X0.1947= 3894kgs of coal [13]
3894X0.7= 2725.8kgs of carbon [14]
Transportation to Can Processing Plant
666/2.53=263.2L [15]
263.2*0.832= 218.8kgs [16]
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 218,816g M= 690,584.9g
N = 1307.9mol N= 15,695.1mol
(Figure 5)
Processing Into a Can

15
(Figure 6)
Transportation of Cans to Brewery
1627.0/2.53=643.1L [17]
643.1*0.832=534.2kgs [18]
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 534,164.9g M= 1,685,828.3g
N = 3192.9mol N= 38,314.3mol
(Figure 7)
Transportation to Thunder Bay
2031/2.53=801.4L [19]
801.4*0.832=666.8kgs [20]
(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2
M = 666,782.8g M= 2,104,371.3g
N = 3985.6mol N= 47,826.6mol
(Figure 8)
Production of actual Beer
Water
13248*0.355= 4703.04L [21]
Barley
*CH4 + (2)O2 (2)H2O + CO2 + ENERGY
M = 261,300g M= 716,783.0g
N = 16,290.5mol N= 16,290.5mol
(Figure 9)
*natural gas is 70-90% methane (CH4) [naturalgas.org]
541/34=16acres[22]
16*27.2=435.5kgs [24]
435.5*0.6=261.3kgs [25]
541*1300=703,300L [23]

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Summary
Carbon Footprint:
Crushing the Bauxite 9.1kgs of CO2
Transportation mine to bauxite refinery 342.7kgs of CO2
Transportation to aluminum smelting plant 852.6kgs of CO2
Aluminum smelting 9986.3kgs of CO2
Transportation to can processing plant 690.6kgs of CO2
Transportation to brewery 1685.8kgs of CO2
Transportation to Thunder Bay 2104.4kgs of CO2
Barley production 716.8kgs of CO2
TOTAL=16,388.3kgs of CO2
TOTAL(single beer)= 16,388.3/13,248.0=1.2kgs of CO2
Water Footprint:
Barley production 703,300.0L
Water inside the beer 4703.0L
TOTAL= 708,003.0L
Ecological Footprint:
Mining of bauxite removing 3947.9kgs of limestone and 856.9kgs of bauxite
Removing 4804.8kgs of limestone from somewhere else to replace the mined ore
Crushing of bauxite 2.8kgs of diesel
Transportation of bauxite to refinery 108.6kgs of diesel
Transportation to aluminum smelter 270.2kgs of diesel
Transportation to can processing plant 218.8kgs of diesel
Transportation of cans to brewery 534.2kgs of diesel
Transportation to Thunder Bay 666.8kgs of diesel
Making manure for barley 261.3kgs of natural gas
Smelting process 3894kgs of bituminous coal
TOTALS=
Removing 856.9kgs bauxite
Removing 8752.7kgs limestone
Removing 261.3kgs of natural gas
Removing 3894kgs of bituminous coal
Removing 1801.4kgs of diesel fuel

17
Appendix B: Research Pages
(Information used in bold)
*Note: I emailed Coors Light asking questions pertaining to their environmental
impact and brewing procedures but they replied back to me that
“Unfortunately, the information you are requesting is not available. We
apologize that we could not be of greater assistance but appreciate your
interest in our company.”
Beer Recipe
(18.9271 litre yield)
Water: 18.9271 litres
Yeast: 5.25 grams
Barley malt: 6 pounds malt syrup (4.8 pounds dry malt)
Hops: 42.5243 grams
So we will need to do this recipe 249times (4703.04/18.9271= 248.48180651)
Beer Recipe
Lifetime yield (4703.04 litre yield)
Water: 4703.04 litres
Yeast: 1304.6 grams
Barley malt: 676255.7 grams malt syrup (541004.5 grams dry malt)
Hops: 10566.5 grams

18
The carbon footprint of a pint of beer:
300g CO2e: locally brewed cask ale at the pub
500g CO2e: local bottled beer from a shop or foreign beer in a pub
900g CO2e: bottled beer from the shop, extensively transported
Beer is unlikely to dominate your carbon footprint but it can make a significant
contribution. According to my calculations, a few bottles of imported lager per day might
add up to as much as a tonne of CO2e per year – equivalent to around 50,000 cups of
black tea.
The beer at the low end of the scale is based on figures for the Keswick Brewing
Company, a microbrewery quite near where I live. Just about everything you can think of
was included in the study I did for them. There were the obvious things such as
ingredients, packaging, fuel, electricity and transport. I also included such elements as
staff travel, the carbon cost of having to replace their equipment every so many years,
and office stationery.
For the Keswick Brewing Company, I estimated that ingredients accounted for about
one-third of the footprint, fuel and electricity about another one-quarter, and staff travel
about one-tenth. The fermentation process itself releases CO2, accounting for about one-
twentieth (15g per pint). Most of the company's beer is sold in reusable casks, so the
footprint of packaging is kept right down.
Here's a full breakdown of the footprint of a Keswick pint:
Ingredients: 36%
Electricity: 26%
Equipment: 13%
Travel and commuting: 10%
Freight: 7%
Fermentation: 5%
Packaging: 3%
A few miles from the Keswick Brewery is another, larger brewery. Delivery from there to
pubs just down the road is via a distribution centre in Wolverhampton, a couple of
hundred miles away. This is the usual story for big breweries and their subsidiaries. Even
the country of origin is not always obvious from the branding. Although a few hundred
road miles are not usually the most significant factor for foods, beer is an exception
because it's so heavy. Hence opting for local ale is usually a good idea.

19
For home consumption, and thinking for a moment only of carbon rather than taste, cans
are slightly better than bottles, provided you recycle them. (I can feel the connoisseurs at
Keswick cringing as I write.) Heeding this advice is especially important if the beer is
travelling a long way because the glass also adds to the weight.
Wherever and whatever you drink, a single pint of a quality beer is almost always better
for both you and the planet than spending the same money on several tins of bargain-
basement brew.
Plant populations
While barley can produce a large number of tillers, best yields will be achieved with an
established plant stand of 800,000 to 1.2 million plants/ha (80-120 plants/square metre).
While barley can tolerate quite high plant populations without significant yield
reductions, if plant populations fall below 80 plants per square metre, yield can be
reduced. Lower plant populations can also encourage excess or late tillering resulting in a
less even crop and delayed harvest. Late tillers often have smaller seed which also affects
the quality of the crop.
Planting rate
Planting rate is the kilograms of seed needed to plant in order to establish the target plant
population. To determine planting rate you need to know the target plant population, the
number of seeds per kg, the germination percentage of the seed and the likely field
establishment.
The number of seed per kg will vary depending on variety and the season in which the
seed was produced. This varies from season to season and to calculate this figure, count
the number of seeds in a 20 g sample and multiply by 50. Newer varieties tend to have
larger seed and it is important to take note of this in determining planting rate.
Field establishment
Field establishment refers to the number of viable seeds that produce established plants
after planting. This can be affected by factors such as seedbed moisture, disease, soil
insects, depth of planting, and the germination percentage of the seed. An establishment
figure of 70% means that for every 10 seeds planted only seven will emerge to produce a
viable plant.
It is important to check establishment after planting in order to evaluate the effectiveness
of the planting technique and make adjustments if necessary.
A guide to likely field establishment, when good quality seed with a laboratory
germination of 90% or better is planted at a depth of 5-7 cm and emerges without the
assistance of post-planting rains, is set out below.
Likely field establishment
Soil type Establishment (%)
No press wheels Press wheels

20
Heavy clay 45 60
Brigalow clay 55 70
Red earth 70 80
Approximate seeding rates (kg/ha) assuming 90% germination
Desired population (plants/ha) Field establishment (%)
60 70 80 90
Planting rate (kg/ha)
700,000 52 45 39 34
900,000 67 57 46 44
1,000,000 74 63 56 49
Use higher sowing rates for grazing crops and very early or late crops.
Planting rates can be calculated for any variety or situation by using the following
formula:
Planting rate (kg/ha) = Desired population (pl/ha) ÷ (Seeds per kg x germination x
establishment)
Note: germination and establishment figures are decimal e.g. 80%=0.8, 90%=0.9, etc.
Example:
Desired plant population of 900,000 pl/ha
Germination = 95%
Expected establishment = 85%
No of seeds/kg = 25,000
Planting rate (kg/ha) = 900,000 (pl/ha) ÷ (25,000 x 0.95 x 0.85)
Planting rate = 44.6 kg/ha
Row spacing
No yield reductions have been recorded for row spacings up to 36 cm. Rows wider than
36 cm have caused minor yield reductions, particularly in good seasons. Wider rows are
more predisposed to lodging and will reduce the level of weed smothering due to canopy
ground cover.
Planting depth
The ideal depth for planting barley is 50-75 mm. Plant emergence may be reduced if seed
is sown deeper than 75 mm. Plant seed into moisture at the minimum depth possible. For
successful establishment, the root must continue to grow into wet soil. Press wheels can
improve the contact between seed and wet soil and reduce the rate of drying of soil above
the seed. Particular care should be taken with planting depth if using seed with fungicidal
dressing which may shorten the coleoptile length and make establishment from depth
more difficult. Check the label before use.

21
The erratic nature of planting rains has resulted in some growers taking opportunities to
sow barley at greater depths than the recommended 50-70mm. As a very vigorous
seedling this has generally been successful for barley if good planting techniques are
applied. In trials barley has emerged from as far as 15cm. A few tips to take into account
include:
avoid the shorter coleoptile (dwarf) varieties
avoid seed dressings which contain triadimenol as these can shorten the coleoptile and
make emerging from depth more difficult
try to minimise the amount of soil which is placed back over the top of the planting
furrow.
ensure that the seed planted has good germination and vigour.
Nutrition
Nitrogen (N)
Management of nitrogen availability is vital to achieve optimal yields and quality in your
barley crop. The level of nitrogen and plant available water will impact strongly on yield
and protein having potentially a major impact on crop return. Unlike wheat where
premiums are available for high protein barley premiums for malting require moderate
proteins of 9-12%. If you target around 12% protein this will also be maximising yield
potential for barley.
A large percentage of Queensland's barley crop is classified as feed with protein levels
above 12%. Older cultivation or double crop situations with lower soil N supplies can
produce malt-grade barley especially in a good season, however, skill is required to
balance the requirement for nitrogen to maximise yield without over fertilising and
increasing the protein level.
A rule of thumb used by some is to grow malting barley, 0.4 kg of nitrogen is required for
every mm of available soil moisture. Thus if there is 150 mm of available soil moisture,
this will require 60 kg of nitrogen to produce a barley crop with protein between 8.5-
12%. In high yielding years, grain protein can be reduced through nitrogen dilution as
grain yield increases.
Nitrogen calculations for barley
Determining soil nitrogen status
Before a fertiliser program can be decided on it is important to gain an estimate of the
existing soil nutrient status. Continuously low grain protein levels are indicative of a
lower soil nitrogen supply. When barley protein levels are below 11.5% dry or below 10-
11% (@12.5% moisture) grain yield losses are likely.
Monitoring crop yields and protein over time can give a good indication of the nitrogen
status of a paddock.
Using grain protein of preceding barley and wheat crops as an indicator of paddock
nitrogen status
Barley protein

22
(dry basis)
% Wheat protein
(11% moisture)
% Comments
Less than 8.5 Less than 10 Acutely nitrogen deficient. Potential yield loss may be in
excess of 30%. Applied N should increase yield significantly. Grain protein would be
increased only if a large amount of N was applied.
8.5-11 10-11.5 Moderately to slightly nitrogen deficient. At least 15% yield loss is
likely because of low soil N. Yield would probably be increased by applying N if there
were no other limiting factors (e.g. soil moisture).
11-12 11.5-12.5 Satisfactory nitrogen status for optimum yield. Additional N would
probably not increase yield but would be likely to increase grain protein.
Greater than 12 Greater than 12.5
Nitrogen not deficient. Yield was most likely limited by water deficit. Additional N
would not increase yield but would probably increase grain protein.
If high protein and low yield occur, even in years of good rain, phosphorus may be
deficient.
Indicative N fertiliser required to produce the target yield of barley with 11.5% grain
protein.
Target yield (t/ha)@ 11.5% protein (dry)
2 3 4 5
Total N required (kg/ha)
75 110 145 180
Cropping history Estimated available soil N (kg/ha)* Balance of N required as
fertiliser (kg/ha)
Double-cropped from sorghum 30 45 80 117 152
Fallowed from winter cereal 55 20 55 92 127
Fallow from chickpeas (yielding 0.5-1.0 t/ha) 65 10 45 82 117
Fallow from chickpeas (yielding 1.0-1.5 t/ha) 75 0 35 72 105
* It is assumed that 30 kg N/ha will be released from the soil as the crop is growing and
the difference in soil N up to the value indicated was present at sowing.
Calculating nitrogen requirement
Another way to calculate nitrogen requirement is by measuring existing soil nitrogen and
estimating a target yield and protein.
Calculate available soil water e.g. using HowWet, stored soil moisture and estimated in-
crop rainfall.
Estimate target grain yield and protein %. - based on available moisture (e.g. 3.5 t/ha @
10.1 % protein). Crop simulations such as Whopper Cropper can generate yield
probabilities for a range of starting soil moisture and sowing dates. Ideal malting barley
grain protein is about 11.5% dry (optimum yield) or 10.1 % wet @ 12% grain moisture.
Target for feed barley grain protein is about 12% dry (max yield) or 10.5% wet at 12.5%
grain moisture.

23
Calculate how much nitrogen will be harvested in the grain. Grain N (kg/ha) = Yield
(t/ha) x protein % x 1.6 (e.g. for the above target yield and protein 3.5 x 10.1 x 1.6 = 57
kg N/ha).
Calculate N required to grow the crop. Barley requires roughly twice the amount of N in
the grain. N required for crop (kg/ha) = Grain N x 2 e.g. (3.5 x 10.1 x 1.6) x 2 = 113 kg
N/ha.
# Estimate or measure the soil nitrogen e.g. use soil tests (including the soil profile to 90
or 120 cm), or previous crop yields and proteins. Include mineralisation (generally about
30kg N/ha).
Calculate the extra N required. Extra N required = N required to grow crop - soil N. For
example if there is 10 units of N in the soil and an estimated 30 units to be mineralised
and a total of 113 units of N to grow your crop of 3.5 mt/ha @ 10.1 % protein.
The equation will be 113 (total N required) - 40 (total available or to be mineralised) = 73
kg/ha of N. If using a product such as urea which is 46% N you will need 158 kg/ha of
urea. (73/0.46).
Bauxite mining requires relatively low energy inputs, compared to other steps in the
aluminium production process – with less than 1.5 kilograms of fuel oil (mainly in the
form of diesel for haul trucks) and less than 5 kWh of electricity consumed per tonne of
bauxite extracted.
The bauxite refining process requires significantly higher energy, primarily in the form of
heat and steam; natural gas, coal and oil are the main fuel sources and are combusted on
site.
The energy required by the Bayer Process is very much dependent on the quality of the
raw material, with böhemitic or diasporic bauxites requiring higher temperature
digestion, often associated with a higher fuel input. Investments in cost effective
technology upgrades at existing facilities can improve the energy efficiency with no
change in input material, as can “sweetening” of the feedstock with small quantities of
higher quality bauxite. Such improvements, along with the addition of new, best available
technology, refining capacity has driven an almost 10% improvement in global refining
energy efficiency in just 5 years. Today, the average specific energy consumption is
around 14.5 GJ per tonne of alumina, including electrical energy of around 150 kWh/t
Al2O3.
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP), wherein fuel is combusted to generate
both electricity and useful heat simultaneously, is increasingly being employed in
refineries. While a significant capital investment is required to build a CHP plant, there
can be significant benefits, both in terms of energy efficiency and as a valuable resource
for local communities. In an alumina refinery, a cogeneration facility provides all the
electricity needed to power the refining process and supporting systems (such as lighting,
offices etc). The waste heat from the generator is captured and used to produce steam for
the refining process. The CHP plant is sometimes designed to produce surplus electricity
for export to local communities, a local customer or to the grid. In some instances, excess
or lower quality steam can also be exported.

24
The greenhouse gas emissions from alumina production are predominantly related to fuel
combustion; therefore improved energy efficiency along with fuel switching, where
viable and appropriate, is the primary means of reducing the greenhouse gas intensity of
refining processes, which currently stands at around 1 tonne of CO2e per tonne of
alumina produced.
Ontario beer customers enjoy a wide selection of high quality beers. If you're not
sure which one to choose, listed below are the 10 most popular brands at The Beer
Store.
1
Coors Light

25
Brewer: MOLSON
Alcohol Content (ABV): 4%
Type of Beer: Light
Brewed according to the high quality standards of the Coors Brewing Company,
Golden, Colorado, U.S.A. Aged slowly for that legendary ice cold, easy drinking
taste that could only come from a brewing tradition born in the Rockies.
Beer Details
2
Molson Canadian
Brewer: MOLSON
Type of Beer: Lager
The definitive Canadian lager. Brewed by Canada's oldest brewery, Molson Canadian is
an easy drinking lager with a true Canadian taste that delivers the perfect balance of
sweetness with a slightly hoppy bitterness and medium body for a refreshing finish.
Beer Details
3
Budweiser
Brewer: LABATT
Type of Beer: Lager
The famous Budweiser beer. Our exclusive Beechwood Aging produces a taste,
smoothness and a drinkability you will find in no other beer at any price.
Beer Details
4
Blue
Brewer: LABATT
Type of Beer: Lager
Labatt Blue is a refreshing, pilsener-style lager brewed using John Labatt's founding
philosophy that a quality beer should have a real, authentic taste. Blue is made with the
finest hops and Canadian Barley malt.

26
Beer Details
5
Bud Light
Brewer: LABATT
Alcohol Content (ABV): 4.0%
Type of Beer: Light
Bud Light is brewed longer, for a refreshingly easy drinking taste, using a blend of rice
and malted barley to give it a clean aroma and crisp, smooth finish. Only the finest
ingredients are used: water, barley malt, rice, hops, and yeast.
Beer Details
6
Carling Lager
Brewer: MOLSON
Type of Beer: Lager
A traditional bottom fermenting lager utilizing Canadian barley malts and selected aroma
and bittering hops to produce a fine, clean, crisp refreshing beer.
Beer Details
7
Busch
Brewer: LABATT
Type of Beer: Lager
Introduced in 1955, Busch Lager has a smooth, light taste. The brand is the USA's largest
selling sub premium-priced beer in all major demographics.
Beer Details
8
Keiths
Brewer: KEITHS BREWERY
Type of Beer: Ale

27
Brewed in Halifax since 1820, India Pale Ale is light in colour and hopped in flavour.
Only the lightest and finest barleys that produce a pale malt are used while the amounts
of hops are increased so as to give a pronounced hop flavour.
Beer Details
9
Heineken
Brewer: HEINEKEN BROUWERIJEN BV
Type of Beer: Lager
Brewed in Holland according to the original recipe, Heineken's distinctive flavour offers
a refreshing European taste that has made it a favourite all over the world.
Beer Details
10
Lakeport Pilsener
Brewer: LABATT
Type of Beer: Lager
Lakeport Pilsener is crisp, clean and smooth with a well-balanced hop character. The
result is a highly drinkable pilsener beer brewed to uncompromising quality standards.
Beer Details
This document is intended to be distributed freely and may be copied for personal use.
Copyright © 1994 by John J. Palmer All Rights Reserved.
These instructions are designed for the first-time Brewer. What follows can be considered
an annotated recipe for a fool-proof Ale beer. Why an Ale beer? Because Ales are the
simplest to brew. Brewing Beer is simple and complicated, easy and hard. Compare it to
fishing - Sit on the end of the dock with a can of worms and a cane pole and you will
catch fish. Going after a specific kind of fish is when fishing gets complicated. Brewing
the specific kind of beer you want is the same thing. There are many different styles of
beer and many techniques to brew them.
Brewing a beer is a combination of several general processes. First is the mixing of
ingredients and bringing the solution (wort) to a boil. Second is the cooling of the wort to
the fermentation temperature. Next the wort is transferred to the fermenter and the yeast
is added. After fermentation, the raw beer is siphoned off the yeast sediment and bottled

28
with a little extra sugar to provide the carbonation. But there are three important things to
keep in mind every time you brew: Cleanliness, Preparation and Good Record Keeping.
Cleanliness
Cleanliness is the foremost concern of the brewer. After all, Fermentation is the
manipulation of living organisms, the yeast. Providing good growing conditions for the
yeast in the beer also provides good growing conditions for other micro-organisms,
including bacteria. Cleanliness must be maintained throughout every stage of the brewing
process.
Preparation
Take the time to prepare your brewing area. Have the ingredients ready on the counter.
Prepare your brewing water. Have the ice on- hand to cool the wort when its done
boiling. Is the Fermenter clean and sanitized? Make sure that all equipment is clean and
ready to go before starting. Patience and planning are necessities.
Record Keeping
Always keep good notes on what ingredients, amounts and times were used in the
brewing process. The brewer needs to be able to repeat good batches and learn from poor
ones.
Brewing Terms:
The following terms will be used throughout these instructions. Many of the terms come
from German and appropriate pronunciations are given. On the other hand, German
pronunciation is optional.
Ale
A beer brewed from a top-fermenting yeast with a relatively short, warm fermentation.
Alpha Acid Units (AAU)
A homebrewing measurement of Hops. Equal to the weight in ounces multiplied by the
percent of Alpha Acids.
Attenuation
The degree of conversion of sugar to alcohol and CO2.
Beer
Any beverage made by fermenting malted barley and seasoning with Hops.
Cold Break
Proteins that coagulate and fall out of solution when the wort is rapidly cooled prior to
Pitching the yeast.
Conditioning
An aspect of Secondary Fermentation in which the yeast refine the flavors of the final
beer. Conditioning continues in the bottle.
Fermentation
The total conversion of malt sugar to beer, defined here as two parts, Primary and
Secondary.
Hops

29
Hop vines are grown in cool climates and brewers make use of the cone-like flowers. The
dried cones are available in Pellets, Plugs, or whole.
Hot Break
Proteins that coagulate and fall out of solution during the wort boil.
Gravity
Like density, gravity describes the concentration of malt sugar in the wort. The specific
gravity of water is 1.000 at 59F. Typical beer worts range from 1.035
1.055 before fermentation (Original Gravity).
International Bittering Units (IBU)
A more precise method of measuring Hops. Equal to the AAU multiplied by factors for
percent utilization, wort volume and wort gravity.
Krausen (kroy-zen)
Used to refer to the foamy head that builds on top of the beer during fermentation. Also
an advanced method of priming.
Lager
A beer brewed from a bottom-fermenting yeast and given a long cool fermentation.
Pitching
Term for adding the yeast to the fermenter.
Primary Fermentation
The initial fermentation activity marked by the evolution of carbon dioxide and Krausen.
Most of the total attenuation occurs during this phase.
Priming
The method of adding a small amount of fermentable sugar prior to bottling to give the
beer carbonation.
Racking
The careful siphoning of the beer away from the Trub.
Secondary Fermentation
A period of settling and conditioning of the beer after Primary Fermentation and before
bottling.
Trub (trub or troob)
The sediment at the bottom of the fermenter consisting of Hot and Cold Break material
and dead yeast.
Wort (wart or wert)
The malt-sugar solution that is boiled prior to fermentation.
Zymurgy
The science of Brewing and Fermentation.
Required Equipment
Airlock
Several styles are available. Fill to the water line with bleach water (1T per gallon) and
cap it (if it has one).
Boiling Pot
Must be able to comfortably hold a minimum of 3 gallons; bigger is better. Use only
Stainless Steel, Ceramic- coated Steel, or Aluminum. Plain steel will give off-flavors.
Bottles

30
Two cases of recappable 12 oz bottles. Use Corona or heavier glass import bottles. Twist-
offs do not work well. Used champagne bottles are ideal if you can find them.
Bottle Capper
Either Hand Capper or Bench Capper. Bench Cappers are more versatile and are needed
for the champagne bottles, but are more expensive.
Bottle Caps
Either standard or oxygen absorbing are available.
Bottle Filler
Rigid plastic (or metal) tube with spring loaded valve at the tip for filling bottles.
Bottle Brush
Necessary for first, hard-core cleaning of used beer bottles.
Fermenter(s)
The 6 gallon food-grade plastic pail is recommended for beginners. These are very easy
to work with. Glass carboys are also available, in 5, 6, and 7.5 gallon sizes.
Racking Cane
Rigid plastic tube with sediment stand-off.
Siphon/Hose
Available in several configurations, consisting of clear plastic tubing with optional
Racking Cane and Bottle Filler.
Stirring Paddle
Food grade plastic paddle (spoon) for stirring the wort during boiling.
Thermometer
Obtain a thermometer that can be safely immersed in the wort and has a range of at least
40F to 150F. The floating dairy thermometers are great.
Optional but Highly Recommended
Bottling Bucket
A 6 gallon food-grade plastic pail with attached spigot and fill-tube. The finished beer is
racked into this for priming prior to bottling. Racking into the bottling bucket allows
clearer beer with less sediment in the bottle. The spigot set-up is used instead of the
Bottle Filler above, allowing greater control of the fill level and no hassles with a siphon
during bottling.
Ingredients
Commercial beer kits always provide 3-4 pounds of malt extract and instructions to add a
couple pounds of sugar. Don't Do It! The resultant beer will have an unpleasant cidery
taste. The following is a basic beer recipe:
5-7 pounds of Hopped Pale Malt Extract syrup. (OG of 1.038 - 1.053)
5 gallons of water.
1-2 ounces of Hops (if desired for more hop character)
1 packet of dry Ale yeast, plus 1 packet for back-up.
3/4 cup corn sugar for Priming.

31
This is a basic Ale beer and quite tasty. You will be amazed. Further descriptions of the
ingredients follow.
Malt Extract:
Using Malt Extract is what makes first time brewing simple. Malt Extract is the
concentrated sugars extracted from malted barley. It is sold in both the liquid and
powdered forms. The syrups are approximately 20 percent water, so 4 pounds of dry Malt
Extract (DME) is roughly equal to 5 pounds of Malt Extract syrup. Malt Extract is
available in both the Hopped and Unhopped varieties. Screen the ingredients to avoid
corn sugar. Munton & Fison, Alexanders, Coopers, Edme and Premier are all good
brands. Laaglander is another good brand but the brewer needs to be aware that it
contains extra unfermentables which add to the body, making the beer finish with an FG
of about 1.020.
Using Unhopped means adding 1-2 ounces of Hops during the boil for bittering and
flavor. Hops may also be added to the Hopped Extracts towards the end of the boil for
more Hop character in the final beer. Unhopped extract is preferable for brewers making
their own recipes.
A rule of thumb is 1 pound of malt extract (syrup) per gallon of water for a light bodied
beer. One and a half pounds per gallon produces a richer, full bodied beer. One pound of
malt extract syrup typically yields a gravity of 1.034 - 38 when dissolved in one gallon of
water. Dry malt will yield about 1.040 - 43. Malt extract is commonly available in Pale,
Amber and Dark varieties, and can be mixed depending on the style of beer desired.
Wheat malt extract is also available and more new extracts are coming out each year.
With the variety of extract now available, there is almost no beer style that cannot be
brewed using extract alone.
The next step in complexity for the homebrewer is to learn how to extract the sugars from
the malted grain himself. This process, called Mashing, allows the brewer to take more
control of producing the wort. This type of homebrewing is referred to as All-Grain
brewing.
Water
The water is very important to the resulting beer. After all, beer is mostly water. If your
tap water tastes good at room temperature, it should make good beer. It will just need to
be boiled for a few minutes to remove the chlorine and kill any bacteria. If the water has
a metallic taste, boil and let it cool before using to let the excess minerals settle out, and
pour it off to another vessel. Do not use water from a salt based water softener. Do not
use Distilled (De-ionized) water. Beer, and Ale particularly, needs the minerals for flavor.
The yeast need the minerals for proper growth. A good bet for your first batch of beer is
the bottled water sold in most supermarkets as Drinking Water. Use the 2.5 gallon
containers. Use one container for boiling the extract and set the other aside for addition to
the fermenter later.
Hops

32
This is another involved subject. There are many varieties of Hops, but they are divided
into two main categories: Bittering and Aroma. Bittering Hops are high in Alpha Acids
(the main bittering agent), typically around 10 percent. Aroma Hops are lower, around 5
percent. Several Hop varieties are in between and are used for both purposes. Bittering
Hops are added at the start of the boil and usually boiled for an hour. Aroma Hops are
added towards the end of the boil and are typically boiled for 15 minutes or less
(Finishing). Hops can also be added to the fermenter for increased hop aroma in the final
beer, called Dry Hopping, but this is best done during Secondary Fermentation. A mesh
bag, called a Hop Bag, may be used to help retain the hops and make removal of the
Hops easier prior to fermentation. Straining or removal of the Hops before fermentation
is largely a matter of personal preference.
Published beer recipes often include a Hops schedule, with amounts and boil times
specified. Other recipes specify the Hops in terms of AAUs and IBUs. AAUs are a
convenient unit for specifying Hops when discussing Hop additions because it allows for
variation in the Alpha Acid percentages between Hop varieties. For the purposes of this
recipe, 7 AAUs are recommended for the Boil (60 minutes) and 4 AAUs for Finishing
(15 minutes). This is assuming the use of Unhopped malt extract; if using Hopped, then
only add the 4 AAUs for finishing. In this recipe, these amounts correspond to 22 IBUs
for the boil, and 1.25 IBU for the finish. IBUs allow for variation in brewing practices
between brewers, yet provide for nearly identical final Hop bitterness levels in the beers.
This recipe is not very bitter.
For more information, see the Recommended Reading section.
Yeast
There are several aspects to yeast; it is the other major factor in determining the flavor of
the beer. Different yeast strains will produce different beers when pitched to identical
worts. Yeast is available both wet and dry, for Ale and Lager, et cetera. For the first-time
brewer, a dry Ale yeast is highly recommended. There are several brands available,
including Coopers, Edme, Nottingham, and Red Star. All of these listed will produce
good results.
Ale yeast are referred to as top-fermenting because much of the fermentation action takes
place at the top of the fermenter, while Lager yeasts would seem to prefer the bottom.
While many of today's strains like to confound this generalization, there is one important
difference, and that is temperature. Ale yeasts like warmer temperatures, going dormant
below 55F (12C), while Lager yeasts will happily work at 40F. Using Lager yeast at Ale
temperatures 65-70F (18-20C) produces Steam Beer, or what is now termed California
Common Beer. Anchor Steam Beer (tm) was the founder of this unique style.
For more information, see the Recommended Reading section.
Yeast Starter
Liquid yeast must be and all yeast should be, pitched to a Starter before pitching to the
beer in the fermenter. Using a starter gives yeast a head start and prevents weak

33
fermentations from under-pitching. Dry Yeast should be re-hydrated before pitching. Re-
hydrating dry yeast is simple.
1. Put 1 cup of warm (90F, 35C) boiled water into a sterile jar and stir in the yeast. Cover
with Saran Wrap and wait 10 minutes.
2. Stir in one teaspoon of sugar.
3. Cover and place in a warm area out of direct sunlight.
4. After 30 minutes or so the yeast should be actively churning and foaming. This is now
ready to pitch.
Liquid yeast is regarded as superior to Dry yeast because of the refinement of yeast
strains present and little risk of bacterial contamination during manufacture. Liquid yeast
allows for greater tailoring of the beer to a particular style. However, the amount of yeast
in a liquid packet is much less than the amount in the dry. For best results, it needs a
starter. The packet must be squeezed and warmed to 80F at least two days before
brewing. One day before, it should be pitched to a wort starter made from 1/4 cup of
DME and a pint of water that has been boiled and cooled to 75F (25C). Adding a quarter
teaspoon of yeast nutrient is also advisable. Let this sit in the same warm place until
brewing time the next day. Some foaming or an increase in the white yeast layer on the
bottom should be evident. The Starter process may be repeated to provide even more
yeast to the wort to insure a strong fermentation.
The Wort and Oxygen
The use of oxygen in brewing is a double-edged sword. The yeast need oxygen to grow
and multiply enough to provide a good fermentation. When the yeast has first been
pitched, whether to the starter or the beer, it first seeks to reproduce. The yeast makes use
of the dissolved oxygen in the wort for this. Boiling the wort drives out the dissolved
oxygen, which is why aeration of some sort is needed prior to fermentation. The yeast
first use up all of the oxygen in the wort for reproduction, then get down to the business
of turning sugar into alcohol and CO2 as well as processing the other flavor compounds.
On the other hand, if oxygen is introduced while the wort is still hot, the oxygen will
oxidize the wort and the yeast cannot utilize it. This will later cause oxidation of the beer
which gives a wet cardboard taste. The key is temperature. The generally accepted
temperature cutoff for preventing hot wort oxidation is 80F. In addition, if oxygen is
introduced after the fermentation has started, it will not be utilized by the yeast and will
later cause the wet cardboard or sherry-like flavors.
This is why it is important to cool the wort rapidly to below 80F, to prevent oxidation,
and then aerate it by shaking or whatever to provide the dissolved oxygen that the yeast
need. Cooling rapidly between 90 and 130F is important because this region is ideal for
bacterial growth to establish itself in the wort.
Most homebrewers use cold water baths around the pot or copper tubing Wort Chillers to
accomplish this cooling in about 20 minutes or less. A rapid chill also causes the Cold
Break material to settle out, which decreases the amount of protein Chill Haze in the
finished beer.

34
Aeration of the wort can be accomplished several ways: shaking the container, pouring
the wort into the fermenter so it splashes, or even hooking up an airstone to an aquarium
air pump and letting that bubble for an hour. For the latter method, (which is popular)
everything must be sanitized! Otherwise, Infection City. These instructions recommend
shaking the starter and pouring/shaking the wort. More on this later.
Sanitization
So far, sanitization of ingredients and equipment has been discussed but not much has
been said about how to do this. The definition and objective of sanitization is to reduce
bacteria and contaminants to insignificant or manageable levels. Sterilization is not really
possible. The Starter solution, Wort and Priming solutions will all be boiled, so those are
not a problem (usually).
One note - Do Not Boil the Yeast! You need them to be alive.
The easiest sanitizing solution is made be adding 1 tablespoon of bleach to 1 gallon of
water (4 ml per liter). This can be prepared in the Fermenting Bucket. Immerse all of
equipment - airlock, hoses, paddles, rubber stopper, fermenter lid and anything else
contacting the beer. Let it sit for 20 minutes. Rinsing is not really necessary at this
concentration, but rinsing with boiled water may be done.
Clean all equipment as soon as possible. This means rinsing out the fermenter, tubing,
etc. as soon as they are used. It is very easy to get distracted and come back to find the
syrup or yeast has dried hard as a rock and the equipment is stained. Keep a large
container with chlorine water handy and just toss things in, clean later.
Rinsing bottles after each use eliminates the need to scrub bottles. If your bottles are
dirty, moldy or whatever, soaking and washing in a mild solution of chlorine bleach
water for a day or two will soften most residue. Brushing with a bottle brush is a
necessity to remove stuck residue. Dish washers are great for cleaning the outside of
bottles and heat sterilizing, but will not clean the inside where the beer is going to go; that
must be done beforehand. Trisodium Phosphate and B-Brite also work very well but must
be rinsed carefully. Do not wash with soap. This leaves a residue which you will be able
to taste. Never use any scented cleaning agents, these odors can be absorbed into the
plastic buckets and manifest in the beer. Fresh-Lemon Scented Pinesol Beer is not very
good. Also, dishwasher Rinse Agents will destroy the Head retention on your glassware.
If you pour a beer with carbonation and no head, this is a common cause.
Beginning the Boil
Bring 2 1/2 gallons water to a boil in a large pot. Meanwhile, re-hydrate the dry yeast.
When the water is boiling, remove from the heat. Add all the malt syrup to the hot water
and stir until dissolved. Make sure there is no syrup stuck to the bottom of the pot by
scraping the bottom of the pot with the spoon while stirring. It is very important not to
burn any malt stuck to the bottom when the pot is returned to the heat. Burnt sugar tastes
terrible.

35
The following stage is critical. The pot needs to be watched continuously. Return the pot
to the heat and bring to a rolling boil, stirring frequently. Start timing the hour.
If you are adding bittering hops, do so now.
A foam may start to rise and form a smooth surface. This is good. If the foam suddenly
billows over the side, this is a boil over (Bad). By the way, adding hop pellets at this
stage tends to trigger a boilover if the pot is really full. Murphy's Law... The liquid is very
unstable at this point and remains so until it goes through the Hot Break (when the wort
stops foaming). This may take 5-20 minutes. The foaming can be controlled by lowering
the heat and/or spraying some water on the surface from a spray bottle. The heat control
using an electric range is poor. Try to maintain a rolling boil. Boiling 2.5 - 3 gallons can
be maintained fairly easily on an electric stove. Boiling the full 5 gallons of water on
electric ranges is almost impossible (not enough heat) and dangerous to lift when the boil
is over.
Continue the rolling boil for the remainder of the hour. Stir occasionally to prevent
scorching. There may be a change in color and aroma and there will be particles floating
in the wort. This is not a concern, its the hot break material. If you are adding the
finishing hops, do so during the last fifteen minutes. Add during the last five minutes if
more hop aroma is desired. This provides less time for the volatile oils to boil away.
Cooling the Wort
At the end of the boil, cooling the wort is very important. While it is above 130F, bacteria
and wild yeasts are inhibited. It is very susceptible to oxygen damage as it cools though.
There are also sulfur compounds that evolve while the wort is hot. If the wort is cooled
slowly these di-methyl sulfides can dissolve back into the wort causing cabbage or
cooked vegetable flavors in the final beer. The objective is to rapidly cool the wort to
below 80F before oxidation or contamination can occur. Here is one preferred method for
cooling the wort.
Place the pot in a sink or tub filled with cold/ice water that can be circulated around the
hot pot. While the cold water is flowing around the pot, gently stir the wort in a circular
pattern so the maximum amount of wort is moving against the sides of the pot. If the
water gets warm, replace with cold water. The wort will cool to 80F in about 20 minutes.
When the pot is still warm to the touch, the temperature is close enough.
Pour the reserved 2.5 gallons of water into the sanitized fermenter. Pour the warm wort
into it, allowing vigorous churning and splashing. Oxidation of the wort is minimal at
these temperatures and this provides the dissolved oxygen that the yeast need to
reproduce. Combining the warm wort with the cool water should bring the mixture to
fermentation temperature. It is best for the yeast if the pitching temperature is the same as
the fermentation temperature. For Ale yeasts, the fermentation temperature range is 65-
75F. (The temperatures mentioned are not absolutely critical and a thermometer is not
absolutely necessary, but is nice to have.)

36
Note: Do not add commercial ice to the wort to cool. Commercial Ice harbors lots of
dormant bacteria that would love a chance to work on the new beer. Bottled Drinking
Water is usually pasteurized or otherwise sanitized to inhibit contamination.
Pitching the Yeast
If the Dry Yeast Starter is not foaming or churning, use the backup yeast. Repeat the re-
hydration procedure and then pitch the Yeast Starter into the beer, making sure to add it
all. Put the lid in place and seal it. Do not put the airlock in quite yet. Place a piece of
clean Saran Wrap over the hole in the lid and cover it with your hand.
With the fermenter tightly sealed, pick it up, sit in a chair, put the fermenter on your
knees and shake it several minutes to churn it up. This mixes the yeast into the wort and
provides more dissolved oxygen that the yeast need to grow. Wipe off any wort around
the hole with a paper towel that is wet with bleach water and place the sanitized airlock
and rubber stopper in the lid. The airlock should be filled to the line with the bleach water
solution.
Active fermentation should start within 12 hours. It can be longer for liquid yeasts
because of lower cell counts, about 24 hours.
Fermentation
Put the fermenter in a protected area like the bathtub. If foam escapes it will run down the
drain and is easy to clean. The temperature here is usually about the most stable in the
house. Animals and small children are fascinated by the smell and noises from the
airlock, so keep them away.
The airlock should be bubbling in twelve hours. Maintain a consistent temperature if
possible. Fluctuating temperature strains the yeast and could impair fermentation. On the
other hand, if the temperature drops overnight and the bubbling stops, simply move it to a
warmer room and it should pick up again. The yeast does not die, it merely goes dormant.
It should not be heated too quickly as this can thermally shock the yeast. In summary, if
the temperature deviates too much or goes above 80F the fermentation can be affected,
which then affects the flavor. If it goes too low, the ale yeast will go into hibernation.
The fermentation process can be very vigorous or slow; either is fine. The secret is in
providing enough active yeast. Fermentation time is a sum of several variables with the
most significant probably being temperature. It is very common for an ale with an active
ferment to be done in a short time. It could last a few days, a week, maybe longer. Any of
the above is acceptable. Three days at 70F may be regarded as typical for the simple ale
being described here.
If the fermentation is so vigorous that the foam pops the airlock out of the lid, just rinse it
out with bleach water and wipe off the lid before replacing it. Contamination is not a big
problem at this point. With so much coming out of the fermenter, not much gets in. Once
the bubbling slows down however, do not open the lid to peek. The beer is still

37
susceptible to infections, particularly anaerobic ones like Lacto Bacillus, found in your
mouth. It will do just fine if left alone for a minimum of two weeks.
The fermentation of malt sugars into beer is a complicated biochemical process. It is
more than just attenuation, which can be regarded as the primary activity. Total
fermentation is better defined as two phases, the Primary or Attenuative phase and a
Secondary or Conditioning phase. The yeast do not end Phase 1 before beginning Phase
2, the processes occur in parallel, but the conditioning processes occur more slowly. This
is why beer (and wine) improves with age. Tasting the beer at bottling time will show
rough edges that will disappear after a few weeks in the bottle. Because the conditioning
process is a function of the yeast, it follows that the greater yeast mass in the fermenter is
more effective at conditioning the beer than the smaller amount of suspended yeast in the
bottle. Leaving the beer in the fermenter for a total of two or even three weeks will go a
long way to improving the final beer. This will also allow time for more sediment to
settle out before bottling, resulting in a clearer beer.
Use of Secondary Fermenters (Optional)
Using a two stage fermentation requires a good understanding of the fermentation
process. At any time, racking the beer can adversely affect it because of potential oxygen
exposure and contamination risk. Racking the beer before the Primary fermentation phase
has completed can result in a stuck or incomplete fermentation and too high a final
gravity. Simple extract ales do not need to be racked to a secondary fermenter. It can
improve clarity and aspects of the flavor, but wait until the second or third beer when you
have more experience with the brewing processes.
The reason for racking to a Secondary Fermenter is to prevent a yeast breakdown called
autolysis, and the resulting bad taste imparted to the beer. This will not be a problem for
these relatively short fermentation-time ale beers. Other beer types, like Lagers and some
high-gravity beer styles, need to be racked to a secondary because these sit on the yeast
for a longer period of time.
The following is a general schedule for a simple ale beer using a secondary fermenter.
Allow the Primary Fermentation stage to wind down. This will be 3-4 days after pitching
when the bubbling rate drops off dramatically to about 1-5 per minute. Using a sanitized
siphon (no sucking!), rack the beer off the trub into a another clean fermenter and affix an
airlock. The beer should still be fairly cloudy with suspended yeast. Racking from the
primary may be done at any time after primary fermentation has more-or-less completed.
(Although if it has been more than two weeks, you may as well bottle.) Most brewers will
notice a brief increase in activity after racking, but then all activity may cease. This is
very normal. Fermentation (Conditioning) is still taking place, so just leave it alone. A
minimum useful time in the secondary fermenter is two weeks. Overly long times in the
secondary (for ales- more than 6 weeks) may require the addition of fresh yeast at
bottling time for good carbonation. This is usually not a concern.
See the Recommended Reading section for further information.

38
A Word About Hydrometers
A hydrometer measures the relative specific gravity between pure water and water with
sugar dissolved in it. The hydrometer is used to gauge fermentation by measuring one
aspect of it, attenuation. Attenuation is the conversion of sugar to ethanol by the yeast.
Water has a specific gravity of 1.000. Beers typically have a final gravity between 1.015
and 1.005. Champagnes and meads can have gravities less than 1.000, because of the
large percentage of ethyl alcohol, which is less than 1. By the way, hydrometer readings
are standardized to 59F, since liquid gravity (density) is dependent on temperature.
Temperature correction tables are usually sold with a hydrometer or are available from
Chemistry Handbooks (ex. CRCs). Here is a short table of corrections:
50F => -.0006
55F => -.0003
59F => 0
65F => +.0006
70F => +.0012
75F => +.0018
80F => +.0026
85F => +.0033
A hydrometer is a useful tool in the hands of an experienced brewer who knows what he
wants to measure. Various books or recipes may give Original and/or Final Gravities (OG
and FG) of a beer to assist the brewer in the evaluation of his success. For an average
beer yeast, a rule of thumb is that the FG should be about one forth of the OG. For
example, a common beer OG of 1.040 should finish about 1.010 (or lower). A couple
points either way is typical scatter.
It needs to be emphasized that the stated FG of a recipe is not the goal. The goal is to
make a good tasting beer. The hydrometer should be regarded as only one tool available
to the brewer as a means to gauge the fermentation progress. The brewer should only be
concerned about a high hydrometer reading when primary fermentation has apparently
ended and the reading is about one half of the OG, instead of the nominal one forth.
Incidentally, if this situation occurs, two remedies are possible. The first is to agitate or
swirl the fermenter to rouse the yeastbed from the bottom. The fermenter should remain
closed with no aeration. The goal is to re-suspend the yeast so they can get back to work.
The alternative is to pitch some fresh yeast.
Hydrometers are necessary when making beer from scratch (all-grain brewing) or when
designing recipes. But the first-time brewer using known quantities of extracts simply
does not need one.
Priming & Bottling
This ale beer will be ready to bottle in two weeks when primary fermentation has
completely stopped. There should be few, if any, bubbles in the airlock. The flavor won't
improve by bottling any earlier. Some books recommend bottling after the bubbling stops
or in about 1 week. It is not uncommon for fermentation to stop after 3-4 days and begin

39
again a few days later. If the beer is bottled too soon, the beer will be over-carbonated
and the pressure may exceed the bottle strength. Exploding bottles are a disaster.
After the bottles have been cleaned with a brush, rinse them with sanitization solution or
run in the dishwasher with the heat on to sanitize. If using bleach solution, allow to drain
upside down in the six-pack holders or on a rack. Do not rinse out with tap water unless it
has been boiled. (Rinsing should not be necessary.) Also sanitize priming container,
siphon unit, stirring spoon and bottle caps. But do not heat the bottle caps, as this may
ruin the gaskets or tarnish them.
Boil 3/4 cup of corn sugar or 1 and 1/4 cup Dry Malt Extract in some water and let it
cool. Here are two methods of Priming:
1. Pour this into the sanitized Bottling Bucket. Using your sanitized siphon unit transfer
the beer into the sanitized bottling bucket. Place the outlet beneath the surface of the
priming solution. Do not allow the beer to splash as you don't want to add oxygen to your
beer at this point. Keep the intake end of the racking tube an inch off the bottom of the
fermenter to leave the yeast and sediment behind. See Note on Siphoning.
2. Opening the fermenter, gently pour the priming solution into the beer. Stir the beer
gently with the sanitized paddle, trying to mix it in evenly while being careful not to stir
up the sediment. Wait a half hour for the sediment to settle back down and to allow more
diffusion of the priming solution to take place. Then siphon to your bottles.
Note on Siphoning: Do not suck on the hose to start the siphon. This will contaminate the
hose with Lacto Bacillus bacteria from your mouth. Fill the hose with sanitizing solution
prior to putting it into the beer. Keep the end pinched or otherwise closed to prevent the
solution from draining out. Place the outlet into another container and release the flow;
the draining solution will start the siphon. Once the siphon is started, transfer it to
wherever.
Some books recommend 1 tsp. sugar per bottle for priming. This is not recommended
because it is time consuming and not precise. Bottles may carbonate unevenly and
explode.
Place the fill tube of the siphon unit or bottling bucket at the bottom of the bottle. Fill
slowly at first to prevent gurgling and keep the fill tube below the waterline to prevent
aeration. Fill to about 3/4 inch from the top of the bottles. Place a sanitized cap on the
bottle and cap. Inspect every bottle to make sure the cap is secure. Age the capped bottles
at room temperature for two weeks, out of direct sunlight. Aging up to two months will
improve the flavor considerably, but one week will do the job of carbonation for the
impatient.
It is not necessary to store the beer cool, room temperature is fine. It will keep for several
months. When cooled prior to serving, some batches will exhibit chill haze. It is caused
by proteins left over from the initial cold break. It is nothing to worry about.

40
Life time
Resource used
Diaper
A child uses diaper
for 2.5 yrs in their life
4/day; 1518/year; 3796/child/lifetime Takes 1898 pints (897.7 litres or
237.25 gallons) of crude oil for
plastic water proof lining, 715 lbs of
plastic, uses pulp of 4.5 trees for the
fluffy padding, just to keep one
American toddler tidy
18 billion disposable diapers thrown out every year. If placed end to end can stretch around the
world 90 times. The diapers long outlives us, they take 500 yrs to biodegrade, much longer for
plastic.
Reusable diaper Need 22455 gallons of water to clean
them. This is enough drinking water
to quench the thirst of an average
person for 93 years
By first year itself an American toddler would have generated more Carbon dioxide emission than
an average person in Tanzania will generate in a life time.
Food (for basic nutrients - proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals etc)
Milk
(for vitamins, proteins
and minerals)
3 pints/ week; 14 pints/ month; 168
pints/ year; 13056 pints/ lifetime or
1632 gallons
Eggs (proteins) 5/ week, 255/ year , 19826/ lifetime
(1.3 tons)
Beef (proteins) 2.5 tons/ lifetime
Pork ( proteins) 1.7 tons/ lifetime
Chicken (proteins) 1423 chicken
(2.3 tons)/ lifetime
Potatoes 9,917 lbs 4 tons –
about 20000 potatoes
Bread 55/year; 4376/lifetime
Or 87000 slices
Hotdog rolls 5,442
Hamburger buns 12,129 (eat the weight of a family car)
Apple 11196 / lifetime
bananas 5067 / lifetime
oranges 12,888 / lifetime
Pine apples 262

41
Beer each person in US drinks
13248 beers
wine 942 bottles in their lifetime
Candy 25 lbs / year (1 shopping cart
full); 14518 candy bars/ lifetime
(12 shopping cart full)
A diet of candy adds to a lifetime of
sugar intake, 1056 lbs – 200 of 5 lbs
bag
Tooth brush 156
Tooth paste 389 tubes
Soaps 656 bars
Shampoo 198
Deodorant 272 sticks
Hair styling gel 35 tubes
Skin care products 411
Nail polish 25
Perfumes 37
Lipstick 50 tubes
Washing machine 7
Refrigerator 5
Microwave 8
Air conditioners 7
Television 10
Computers 15 Over 574 millions sold worldwide
every year, at least 100 million to
Americans. It takes a wide range of
materials and resources to make
each one of them.
To make a single desktop, it requires
at least 530 lbs of fossil fuels, 48 lbs
of assorted chemicals and over 1.7
tons of water used in production
Every one of these leaves a mark, has an effect on the environment.
Take a hair dryer. An average person using it burns 3 quarter tonne of coal during their life time –
just to dry your hair.
Homes Average American moves home 10
times in a lifetime.
More than 64 trees to supply all
woods in an average home. (2000 sq
foot house uses 13837 ft of lumber to

42
stretch across Brooklyn bridge and
back again.)
11500 sq feet of siding enough to
cover 4 tennis court,
17 tons of concrete, 5.500 sq feet of
interior raw mat, wood paneling and
insulation, 400 lbs. of copper, 30
gallons of paint
Cars - symbol of
freedom - “freedom
on wheels”
12 5% of worlds population has 30% of
car population of the world
Clothes An average American throws away in
weight - 68 lbs of clothing and textiles
each year.
It takes 528 gallons of water, 1/3 lbs
of chemicals along with cotton to
make one T-shirt logs 14625 air
miles from USA to China and back
just to get components to factory and
T-shirt back to you.
An average pair of Jeans travelled
20000 miles before you even put it
on.
Sneakers Leather from Texas, tanned in South
Korea, stitched in Indonesia, before
they are out of box they would have
travelled 20000 miles using up
resources and increasing weight of
the footprints. Brand new pair of
sneakers would have travelled
farther than we will ever walk on
earth.
Laundry Average American generates 500
pounds of dirty laundry every year
45 billion loads of laundry across the
country, 1100 loads started every
sec and all those loads uses 560
billion gallons of water equal to
amount of water that flows over
Niagara falls every 11 days.
Showers taken in a
lifetime
28433 times/ lifetime uses 700000 gallons of water
Water - sprinkle front 1.277 million gallons of water in a life

43
lawns, wash cars, fill
kitchen sink, flush
toilets (not
considering shower)
time. (same as keeping the tap
running continuously for 62 weeks)
Habits
Watching TV 4 hrs / day adding up all that amounts
to 12.5 years spend in front of tube in
a lifetime
This past time consumes 22000
kilowatts of electricity enough to
power light bulb for 43 years
Reading (books,
magazines,
newspapers)
Average American polish off 6 books
per year 412 books/ lifetime.
Over the life time, read 5054
newspaper
43 Trees/per person to read all the
newspaper in lifetime.
191 million trees for making all the
papers for one year.
Cutting down these trees means
365500 tons of CO2 released into
atmosphere each year, rather be
absorbed by trees to create oxygen.
1000 tons of carbon dioxide per day
just to read newspaper
Driving habits Each drive an average of 11000 miles
a year that’s 627000 miles over a life
time or 25 times around the world and
on that journey we use 31350 gallons
of gasoline,
Americans use a quarter of all oil
consumption and it takes half of that
to fuel all our cars, 10.5 million
barrels of oil everyday
Gasoline 31350 gallons enough to fill 3 big oil
tankers
Gasoline creates 6 tons of carbon
emissions a year. Over a driving life
time this amounts to 360 tonnes
each.
Flying In USA there more domestic flights
than any place on earth. At any given
time there are 5000 airplanes crossing
the country
Atlanta airport 2685 take of or land
every day, 1 plane landing or take off
every 2 seconds
Their vapour trail form heat trapping
clouds allowing excessive CO2 to
build up in our atmosphere.
A single trip from Seoul to
Washington DC produces 3.5 tonnes
of carbon emissions. It takes 6
months of car driving to generate this
amount of carbon emissions
Just the vehicles alone create a carbon foot print that is equal to that of many nations put
together. Use of hybrid vehicles - it would be possible to cut emissions by a third

44
Waste and packaging thrown from just food alone.
Plastic thrown/
person in lifetime
29700 lbs about 15 tons
Aluminium thrown –
most are soda cans
43371 cans of soda/ lifetime
Other Waste
Sewage system Every day each of us sends 20
gallons
567575 gallons/ each in a life time
Waste to landfills 5.3 lbs./day; 160 lbs./month; a
ton/year;
Each of us sends 64 tons of waste to
landfills /lifetime, i.e. 4 garbage truck
filled to the brim
Every sec 694 plastic bottles,
11 million glass bottles and jars
every day, (that is equivalent to 440
Titanic or 30 empire state buildings)
Another 100 million aluminium and
steel cans everyday, 36 billion cans
tossed every year. Enough to build a
roof over New York every day
Bauxite mining requires only a small amount of energy
compared to refining of bauxite and electrolytic reduction of
alumina. Diesel fuel (69%) and fuel oil (24%) provide the bulk
of the energy used to mine and transport the bauxite. The
average energy consumption amounted to 153 MJ per dry
tonne of mined bauxite (range: 40-470 MJ/tonne). On
average each tonne of bauxite had to be transported 54km
from the point of extraction to the shipping point or local
refinery stockpile (range: 11-240km).
69%
24%
1%
3%
2%
Figure 5: Energy sourcesfor bauxite mining
and transport to point of shipping
Source: International Aluminium Institute, 2009
1%
Diesel fuel
Natural gas
Coal
Hydro

45
Others
Fuel oil
Mine operators have adopted a number of strategies to use
energy more efficiently and to reduce emissions. These
strategies include:
• Purchase of larger, more energy efficient mining
equipment and trucks
• Improved maintenance of mining and transport
machinery
• More efficient use of equipment by optimising truck cycle
times and reducing idling and waiting times
• Reduction of haul distances for overburden storage
• Use of downhill regenerative cable belt conveyors to
transport bauxite
• Change to lower emission fuels such as natural gas
where possible
Table 1: Bauxite properties Minimum Maximum
Average bauxite layer thickness 2 m 20 m
Average overburden thickness 0.4 m 12 m
Average available alumina content (Al2O3) 31% 52%
Fuel consumption by a containership is mostly a function of ship size and cruising speed,
which follows an exponential function above 14 knots. For instance, while a
containership of around 8,000 TEU would consume about 225 tons of bunker fuel per
day at 24 knots, at 21 knots this consumption drops to about 150 tons per day, a 33%
decline. While shipping lines would prefer consuming the least amount of fuel by
adopting lower speeds, this advantage must be mitigated with longer shipping times as
well as assigning more ships on a pendulum service to maintain the same port call
frequency. The main ship speed classes are:
Normal (20-25 knots; 37.0 - 46.3 km/hr). Represents the optimal cruising speed a
containership and its engine have been designed to travel at. It also reflects the
hydrodynamic limits of the hull to perform within acceptable fuel consumption levels.
Most containerships are designed to travel at speeds around 24 knots.
Slow steaming (18-20 knots; 33.3 - 37.0 km/hr). Running ship engines below capacity to
save fuel consumption, but at the expense a additional travel time, particularly over long
distances (compounding effect). This is likely to become the dominant operational speed
as more than 50% of the global container shipping capacity was operating under such
conditions as of 2011.

46
Extra slow steaming (15-18 knots; 27.8 - 33.3 km/hr). Also known as super slow
steaming or economical speed. A substantial decline in speed for the purpose of
achieving a minimal level of fuel consumption while still maintaining a commercial
service. Can be applied on specific short distance routes.
Minimal cost (12-15 knots; 22.2 - 27.8 km/hr). The lowest speed technically possible,
since lower speeds do not lead to any significant additional fuel economy. The level of
service is however commercially unacceptable, so it is unlikely that maritime shipping
companies would adopt such speeds.
The practice of slow steaming emerged during the financial crisis of 2008-2009 as
international trade and the demand for containerized shipping plummeted at the same
time as new capacity ordered during boom years was coming online. As a response,
maritime shipping companies adopted slow steaming and even extra slow steaming
services on several of their pendulum routes. It enabled them to accommodate additional
ships with a similar frequency of port calls. It was expected that as growth resumed and
traffic picked up maritime shipping companies would return to normal cruising speeds.
However, in an environment of higher fossil fuel prices, maritime shipping companies are
opting for slow steaming for cost cutting purposes, but using the environmental agenda to
further justify them. Slow steaming practices have become the new normal to which users
must adapt to.
Slow steaming also involves adapting engines that were designed for a specific optimal
speed of around 22-25 knots, implying that for that speed they run at around 80% of full
power capacity. Adopting slow steaming requires the "de-rating" of the main engine to
the new speed and new power level (around 70%), which involves the timing of fuel
injection, adjusting exhaust valves, and exchanging other mechanical components in the
engine. The ongoing practice of slow steaming is likely to have an impact on supply
chain management, mar itime routes and the use of transshipment hubs.

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