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Existing Relationships Between Violent Video Games and Aggression
A Review of the Literature
Sandra L. Knecht
University of Alabama in Huntsville

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Existing Relationships Between Violent Video Games and Aggression
A Review of the Literature
Abstract
Aggression is typically defined as behavior that is intended to harm another person and it
can present itself in various forms. Common forms include physical aggression, verbal
aggression, and relational aggression. Violence is a more extreme and very malicious form of
physical aggression that can lead to severe injuries or death. In modern video games, themes of
aggression and violence have become pervasive. Those who argue against violent video games
claim that playing these games can lead to an increased incidence of aggression in young people.
Other researchers claim that the effects of violent gaming depend more on the gamer’s individual
personality and disposition. It has also been proposed that playing these types of video games
can be beneficial and produce many positive outcomes. With so many conflicting viewpoints, it
is clear why research on the topic of violent video games has been long-lived and controversial.
To gain an adequate understanding of the link between aggression and video games, it is
important to examine a wide variety of research on the topic.
Violent Video Games in Popular Culture
In September 2013, Rockstar Games unleashed one of the world’s most anticipated video
games. Upon it’s release, the fifth installation of the Grand Theft Auto game series shattered six
world sale records. Guinness World Records reported that GTA V earned awards which included
“the highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours” and “the fastest

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entertainment property to gross $1 billion” (Lynch, 2013). As a series, GTA has been considered
revolutionary. The game has obtained perfect or nearly perfect scores from prominent video
game critics. Given the massive success, it is natural to wonder what type of gaming experience
GTA offers. The following excerpt from the Entertainment Software Ratings Board (ESRB)
review of GTA V offers an abridged version of gameplay:
“Players assume the role of a criminal.. completing missions which often include criminal
activities (e.g., stealing cars, executing heists, assassinating targets). Players use pistols,
machine guns, sniper rifles, and explosives to kill rival gang members.. blood-spatter effects
occur frequently.. rare depictions of dismemberment.. tooth removal.. electrocution..
implied fellatio and masturbation.. sex acts with prostitutes.. necrophilia.. cocaine is depicted..
driving under the influence..The words “f***”, “c***”, and “n*****” can be heard in the
dialogue” (ESRB, n.d.).
Refer to Figures 1-3 for visual representations of gameplay and the ESRB label.
Figure 1. Screenshot from
GTA V showing high
graphical quality (Rockstar
Games, 2014).
Figure 2. ESRB Rating Label
for GTA V (Rockstar Games,
2014).
Figure 3. Screenshot from
GTA V showing high
graphical quality and
violence (Rockstar Games,
2014).

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The game content of GTA is important to consider for several reasons. For one, GTA is
not the only title that offers this type of explicit gameplay. The extreme levels of gruesome and
violent material that are highlighted in GTA gameplay are also pervasive in countless other video
games. Although the content is intense, these types of games are also tremendously popular. Data
indicate that in the United States “97% of adolescents age 12 to 17 years play computer, Web,
portable, or console video games [and] over half reported playing violent video games” (Lenhart
et al., 2008). Due to these factors, concerns have been raised about the effects that violent games
may have on individual gamers.
Foundational Research: Observation and Aggression
Studying the incidence of aggressive behavior has been an important topic in psychology
for decades. Fifty years ago, Albert Bandura demonstrated how children could learn aggression
through the observation of violent acts in his infamous “Bobo Doll Experiment”. Children were
either exposed to a violent adult that would abuse the bobo doll, or they were exposed to a non-
violent adult model who was not violent towards the bobo doll. Children who witnessed the
violent adult were much more likely to imitate them and act violently towards the bobo doll
themselves. Drawing from this experiment, Bandura created the Social Learning Model. His
model proposed that people learn from each other, through observation, imitation, and modeling.
This set the stage for research examining how observing violence can impact aggressive
behavior in children. In the 1980’s and 1990’s, research became focused on aggressive behaviors
produced from watching violent films or images. For example, Cornstock (1980) and Green

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(1990) concluded that children exposed to violent films are more likely to behave aggressively in
play sessions immediately following the film. Unfortunately, these research studies cannot prove
that observing the violent film directly produces aggressive behavior. Arousal levels were not
considered, and they are likely to act as a third-variable, greatly influencing the production of
aggressive behavior (Anderson et al., 2003). However, these studies were important because they
laid the necessary groundwork for further social learning research.
Video Games Versus Other Violent Media Types
Media-focused research findings provide a strong foundation for video game aggression
research, but they must be differentiated from one another. Video games are different from other
forms of violent media because they are interactive (Gluck et al., 2014). In video game play, the
user is actively involved. This differs from watching television or films, where the user is
passive. Another large difference between film and video games is the identification with
villainous characters. In games such as Grand Theft Auto and Call Of Duty, the user actively
takes on the perspective of a violent criminal or killer. If a young person is watching a violent TV
show or movie, they are not forced to identify with any particular character. The third difference
that sets video games apart from other sources of media violence are their reward systems. For
example, if you kill the most people in a round of Call of Duty, you win. Violent video games are
typically designed to reinforce winning in a very positive way. A lot of video games utilize
verbal praise, achievements, and virtual trophies in their reward systems. These extensive reward
systems effectively reinforce the gamer and keep them coming back for more (Anderson et al.,

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2002). Essentially, it is important to acknowledge that violent video games possess unique risk
factors that increase their potential for influence over aggressive behavior.
Do Video Games Increase Aggression or Any Other Behaviors?
In recent years, video games and other forms of interactive media (e.g. the internet) have
become a prominent focus for researchers. The research initiative was largely spurred from the
emergence of “school shootings by avid players of such games” (Anderson et al., 2003). Since
1990, several studies have concluded that there is a positive correlation between playing violent
video games and aggression in young adults. In addition, experimental research studies have
demonstrated that temporary increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognitions, aggressive
affect, and physiological arousal result from playing violent video games. They also found that
exposure to violent games decreased helping behaviors and feelings of empathy for others
(Anderson et al., 2004). These temporary increases in aggressive behaviors are generally
undisputed, however, they only provide evidence for a short-term relationship between video
game use and aggression. A long-term relationship between the two variables cannot be
determined for these factors because few longitudinal studies have been conducted (Willoughby
et al., 2012).
However, Anderson & Carnagey (2004) did go on to address long term effects of repeat
exposure to violent video games in what is known as the General Aggression Model. They
proposed that long term exposure to these games may promote aggressive beliefs and attitudes.
The games may create new behavioral scripts and expectations, therefore promoting a hostile
attributional bias toward neutral situations. For example, if someone were to accidentally bump

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into a violent video game user in the hallway, the gamer may interpret it incorrectly and be more
prone to hostile retaliation. In addition, other studies have proposed that high levels of
competition and the fast pace of action in video games induce an interaction between frustration
and arousal that makes aggression more likely to occur (Willoughby et al., 2012).
Long-term video game play and aggressive behavior are evaluated in adolescence
through the lenses of two major theories. The socialization theory proposes that violent video
game play predicts aggression over time. Alternatively, the selection hypothesis proposes that
aggression predicts violent video game play over time. The Anderson et al. (2004) study favored
the socialization hypothesis, because their results indicated that violent video games have
predicted higher levels of aggression over time.
Which Comes First -- Aggression or Violent Video Games?
Lemmens et al. (2006) examined the effect of individual differences on the appeal of
violent video games. Their research indicated that “education level, empathy, trait
aggressiveness, and cultural aspects contributed to differences in the appeal of violent video
games”. In general, adolescent boys preferred violent games to nonviolent games. Boys with
lower education levels exhibited a greater preference for violent video games in comparison to
those with higher education levels. However, this could be due to the fact that higher educational
demands reduce playtime. They also discovered that frequent game users exhibited less empathy,
which could be indicative of an acquired desensitization to violence. Their research also
importantly suggested that aggressive boys were most attracted to violent games. Unfortunately,
they could not determine whether aggression leads to increased violent game play, or if the game

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play contributes to the aggression. However, “Some authors have suggested that causality of
violence in games works in both directions” (Lemmens et al., 2006). Aggressive tendencies may
lead young people to seek out violent interactive media that is consistent with those tendencies.
Playing a violent game may reinforce an individual’s trait aggression, which results in an
increased appreciation and use of violent games. Essentially, trait aggression may spur initial
interest, but both variables are theorized to interact in a vicious cycle with one another.
Positive Effects of Video Game Use
Although extensive research has focused on the negative aspects of violent video games,
others suggest that there may be some positive consequences of playing video games (even the
violent ones). One of the proposed benefits of gaming is the social interaction. “Over 70% of
gamers play their games with a friend, either cooperatively or competitively” (Granic, 2013).
Increased online game play has created an environment where gamers can chat with people from
all around the world, despite differences in language, geographical distance, age, culture, and
socioeconomic standing. This type of gaming resource could become a beneficial tool, providing
emotional and social support to those who seek group-based interventions. Games also provide a
safe environment where players could work out their negative emotions. Video games also offer
users a chance to feel pride from reaching goals and persevering in tasks. They have also been
proposed as therapeutic treatments used to “enhance motivation, increase engagement, and
provide varied opportunities for practicing new skills in flexibly designed contexts” (Granic,
2013). Despite her claims, Granic (2013) does not gloss over the research claiming that video
games can have negative effects. She does, however, point out that Ferguson (2007), Anderson et

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al. (2010), and Bushman et al. (2002), for example, all reached very different conclusions.
Granic suggests that these conflicting meta-analyses indicate that the effects stemming from the
idea that video game use is much more complex than we have proposed. She warns against the
danger of dichotomizing video games into “good”, “bad”, “violent”, etc. She claims that it
overlooks the complex variety of modern games and gamers.
Discussion and Direction of Future Research
I think that more extensive longitudinal studies should be conducted to reach a more
stable understanding of the interaction. However, I believe that it will take quite awhile to gather
the necessary data to make any serious conclusions. This is due to the numerous confounding
variables, correlational dependence with lack of causality, and the ethical constraints of these
types of studies. Aggressive reactions to video games could be predisposed, brought on by
arousal, or influenced by numerous unknown factors. In my opinion, it is likely that there is a
complex interaction between each unique individual and each unique gaming experience.
Currently, the ongoing debate concerning the relationship between aggression and video game
use seems to be a hindrance on progress. I do believe that video games have the potential to be
useful in many ways. So, in the meantime, I believe that “a multidisciplinary team of
psychologists, clinicians, and game designers” (Granic, 2013) should work together to develop
innovative games that are more accepted in the community and that foster positive results from
gaming experiences.

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Works Cited
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Media violence and societal violence. Science, 295,
2377-2378.
Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of
Adolescence, 27, 113–122. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.009
Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, R. L., Johnson, J., Linz, D., . . .
Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the
Public Interest, 4, 81–110.
ESRB. Grand Theft Auto V. (n.d.). Entertainment Software Rating Board. Retrieved from http://
www.esrb.org/ratings/synopsis.jsp?Certificate=33073
Gluck, M. A., Mercado, E., & Myers, C. E. (2014). Learning and Memory: From Brain to
Behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. E. (2013). The Benefits of Playing Video Games. American
Psychologist, 69(1), doi:10.1037/a0034857
Lemmens, J. S., & Bushman, B. J. (2006). The Appeal of Violent Video Games to Lower
Educated Aggressive Adolescent Boys from Two Countries. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(5),
638-641. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9.638
Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A., Evans, C., Vitak, J., & Pew Internet &
American Life, P. (2008). Teens, Video Games, and Civics: Teens' Gaming Experiences Are
Diverse and Include Significant Social Interaction and Civic Engagement. Pew Internet &
American Life Project, Retrieved from EBSCO host
Lynch, K. (2013, October 8). Confirmed: Grand Theft Auto 5 Breaks 6 Sales World Records.
Guinness World Records. Retrieved from http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2013/10/
confirmed-grand-theft-auto-breaks-six-sales-world-records-51900/
Rockstar Games. (2014). Screenshots. Rockstargames.com. Retrieved April 1, 2014 from
www.rockstargames.com/V/screenshots

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Willoughby, T., Adachi, P. C., & Good, M. (2012). A longitudinal study of the association
between violent video game play and aggression among adolescents. Developmental Psychology,
48(4), 1044-1057. doi:10.1037/a0026046