Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to understand meanings, experiences, and perspectives of research subjects. It uses methods like field observations, focus groups, and case studies. Field observations involve observing research subjects in natural settings either covertly or overtly. Focus groups involve interviewing 6-12 people in a group setting led by a moderator. Qualitative research provides descriptive insights but results are not generalizable.

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Question 3: What is qualitative research? Discuss the method of qualitative
research.
Introduction
Qualitative research has a long history in sociology. This type of research has long
appealed to social scientists because it allows the researchers to investigate the
meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others.
So qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and
the processes and relations of social life.
Qualitative research
Generally we can say that Qualitative research is a type of social science research
that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret
meaning from these data that help understand social life.
Qualitative research is the process of inquiry that seeks to understand the nature of
its subjects. Qualitative research is designed to elucidate the characteristics of the
things it studies, as they are perceived by human beings.
[https://www.quora.com/What-is-Qualitative-research]
So Qualitative research is a scientific method of observation to gather non-
numerical data.
Method of qualitative research
Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth
perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events.

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Their findings are collected through a variety of methods. These are in the
following:
 Field observation
 Focus group
 Case study
The descriptions of these are given below:
Field Observation
Field observation is useful for collecting data and for generating hypotheses and
theories. Like all qualitative techniques, it is concerned more with description and
explanation than with measurement and quantification.
Overt
1 2
Observer Participant
4 3
Covert
Fig. 1 Dimensions of Field Observation

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Figure shows that Field observations are classified along two major dimensions:
(1) The degree to which the researcher participates in the behavior under
observation and
(2) The degree to which the observation is concealed.
Quadrant 1 in Figure 1 represents overt observation. In this situation, the
researcher is identified when the study begins, and those under observation are
aware that they are being studied. Furthermore, the researcher’s role is only to
observe, refraining from participation in the process under observation.
Quadrant 2 represents overt participation. In this arrangement, those being
observed also know the researcher, but unlike the situation represented in Quadrant
1, the researcher goes beyond the observer role and becomes a participant in the
situation.
Quadrant 3 represents the situation where the researcher’s role is limited to that of
observer, but those under observation are not aware they are being studied.
Quadrant 4 represents a study in which the researcher participates in the process
under investigation but is not identified as a researcher.
Some examples of field observation studies in mass media research include
Gieber’s (1956) classic study of gate keeping (information flow) in the newsroom
and
Moriarty and Everett (1994) conducted a study where researchers observed family
members watching television and recorded their behaviors on a moment-to-
moment basis during several 45-minute viewing episodes.

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Advantages of Field Observations
Although field observation is not an appropriate technique for every research
question, it does have several unique advantages. For one thing, many mass media
problems and questions cannot be studied using any other methodology.
Field observation often helps the researcher define basic background information
necessary to frame a hypothesis and to isolate independent and dependent
variables.
For example, a researcher interested in how creative decisions in advertising are
made could observe several decision making sessions to see what happens.
A field observation is not always used as a preliminary step to other approaches.
Sometimes it alone is the only appropriate approach, especially when
quantification is difficult.
Field observation is particularly suitable for a study of the gate keeping process in
a network television news department because it is difficult to quantify gate
keeping.
Field observation may also provide access to groups that would otherwise be
difficult to observe or examine.
For example, a questionnaire sent to producers of X-rated movies is not likely to
have a high return rate. An observer, however, may be able to establish mutual
trust with such a group and persuade them to respond to rigorous questioning.
Field observation is usually inexpensive. In most cases, it requires only writing
materials or a small audio or video recorder.

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Disadvantages of Field Observations
On the negative side, field observation is a poor choice if the researcher is
concerned with external validity.
Validation is difficult partly because the representativeness of the observations
made is potentially questionable and partly because of problems in sampling.
Field observations suffer from the problem of reactivity. The very process of being
observed may influence the behavior under study. Of course, reactivity can be a
problem with other research methods, but it is most often mentioned as a criticism
of field observation.
Field Observation Techniques
There are at least six stages in a typical field observation study: choosing the
research site, gaining access, and sampling, collecting data, analyzing data, and
exiting. The descriptions of these are given below:
 Choosing the Research Site
The nature of the research question or area of inquiry usually suggests a behavior
or a phenomenon of interest. Once it is identified, the next step is to select a setting
where the behavior or phenomenon occurs with sufficient frequency to make
observation worthwhile.
Possible research venues can be identified from personal experience, from talking
with other researchers, from interviews with people who frequent the site, or from
newspaper and magazine stories.

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Anderson (1987) suggests that researchers select two or three research sites and
then “hang around” (Anderson’s terminology) each one to discover their main
advantages and disadvantages.
Qualitative researchers should avoid choosing sites where they are well known or
have some involvement in the area.
 Gaining Access
Once the site is selected, the next step is to establish contact. Williamson, Karp,
and Dalphin (1992) note that the degree of difficulty faced by researchers in
gaining access to settings depends on two factors: (1) how public the setting is; and
(2) the willingness of the subjects in the setting to be observed.
The easiest setting to enter is one that is open to the public and that gives people
little reason to keep their behavior secret (for example, a place where people are
watching TV in public—an airport, a bar, a dormitory viewing room).
The most difficult setting to enter is one where entry is restricted. (For example, a
support group for the victims of abuse).
Gaining permission to conduct field observation research requires persistence and
public relations skills.
Bogdan and Taylor (1998) suggest the following techniques for building rapport:
establish common interests with the participants; start relationships slowly; if
appropriate, participate in common events and activities; and do not disrupt
participants’ normal routines.

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Lindlof (1995) suggests these ways of gaining access:
• Identify the scene’s gatekeeper and attempt to persuade him or her of the
project’s relevance.
• Find a sponsor who can vouch for the usefulness of the project and can help
locate participants.
• Negotiate an agreement with participants.
 Sampling
Sampling in field observation is more ambiguous than in most other research
approaches. First, there is the problem of how many individuals or groups to
observe. If the focus of the study is communication in the newsroom, how many
newsrooms should be observed? If the topic is family viewing of television, how
many families should be included? Unfortunately, there are no guidelines to help
answer these questions.
Another problem is deciding what behavior episodes or segments to sample. The
observer cannot be everywhere and see everything, so what is observed becomes a
de facto sample of what is not observed.
Most field observations use purposive sampling, where observers draw on their
knowledge of the subject(s) under study and sample only from the relevant
behaviors or events.
Here are some sampling strategies that might be used (Lindlof, 1995):

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 Maximum variation sampling: Settings, activities, events, and informants
are chosen purposefully to yield as many different and varied situations as
possible.
 Snowball sampling: A participant refers the researcher to another person
who can provide information. These people, in turn, mention another, and
so forth.
 Typical case sampling: In contrast to the maximum variation technique, the
researcher chooses cases that seem to be most representative of the topic
under study.
 Collecting Data
The traditional data collection tools—notebook and pencil—have been
supplemented, if not supplanted, by other instruments in recent years. As early as
1972, Bechtel, Achelpohl, and Akers installed television cameras in a small sample
of households to document families’ TV viewing behavior. Two cameras,
automatically activated when the television set was turned on, videotaped the scene
in front of the set.
Video cameras and video recordings have become more portable and easier to use
in field observation.
Note taking in the covert participant situation requires special attention.
Field notes constitute the basic corpus of data in any field study. In these notes, the
observers record what happened and what was said, as well as personal
impressions, feelings, and interpretations of what was observed.

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In addition to firsthand observation, three other data collection techniques are
available to field researchers: diary keeping, unobtrusive measures, and document
analysis.
With the first technique, an investigator routinely supplements his or her field
notes by keeping a research diary. This diary consists of personal feelings,
sentiments, occasional reflections, and other private thoughts about the research
process itself; the writings augment and help interpret the raw data contained in the
field notes.
A second data collection technique available to the field researcher is unobtrusive
measurement. This technique helps overcome the problem of reactivity by
searching out naturally occurring phenomena relevant to the research task.
Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, and Sechrest (1968) identify two general types of
unobtrusive measurements: erosion and accretion.
The first type, erosion, estimates wear and tear on a specific object or material. For
example, to determine what textbooks are used heavily by students, a researcher
might note how many passages in the text are highlighted, how many pages are
dog-eared, whether the book’s spine is creased, and so on.
Accretion, on the other hand, quantifies deposits that have built up over time, such
as the amount of dust that has built up on the cover of a textbook.
Accretion and erosion measurement methods do, however, have drawbacks. First,
they are passive measures and out of the researcher’s control. Second, other factors
might influence what is being observed.

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Finally, existing documents may represent a fertile source of data for the
qualitative researcher. In general terms, two varieties of documents are available
for analysis: public and private. Public documents include police reports,
newspaper stories, transcripts of TV shows, data archives, and so on. Other items
may be less recognizable as public documents, however; messages on Internet
bulletin boards, blogs, websites, company newsletters, tombstones, posters, graffiti,
and bumper stickers can all fit into this category.
Private documents, on the other hand, include personal letters, diaries, memos,
faxes, emails, home movies and videos, telephone logs, appointment books,
reports, and so on.
 Analyzing Data
We have discussed some general considerations of qualitative data analysis.
Concerning the specific technique of field observation, data analysis primarily
consists of filing the information and analyzing its content. Constructing a filing
system is an important step in observation. The purpose of the filing system is to
arrange raw field data in an orderly format that is amenable to systematic retrieval
later.
The overall goal of data analysis in field observation is to arrive at a general
understanding of the phenomenon under study. In this regard, the observer has the
advantage of flexibility.
 Exiting
A researcher acting as a participant must have a plan for leaving the setting or the
group under study.

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[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th
edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An
Introduction. Page: 124-132]
Conclusion
Observation research is an invaluable qualitative method utilized in
communication research. It is used to answer questions that quantitative research
techniques may not effectively provide answers to. However, the ability of the
researcher to use it depends on his capacity to recognize appropriate research
problems that are better investigated through this technique and adherence to its
procedure so that reliable data can be obtained.
Focus Groups
The focus group, or group interviewing, is a research strategy for understanding
people’s attitudes and behavior. From 6 to 12 people are interviewed
simultaneously, with a moderator leading the respondents in a relatively
unstructured discussion about the topic under investigation. The focus group
technique has four defining characteristics (based on Krueger and Casey, 2000):
 Focus group involve people (participants)
 The people possess certain characteristics and are recruited to share a quality
or characteristic of interest to the researcher. For example, all may be beer
drinkers, or Lexus owners, or females 18–34 who listen to certain types of
music on the radio.
 Focus groups usually provide qualitative data. Data from focus groups are
used to enhance understanding and to reveal a wide range of opinions
 As the name implies, focus groups have a focused discussion. Most of the
questions to be asked are predetermined, the sequence of questions is

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established, and the questions are structured to further the goal of the
research.
Advantages of Focus Groups
Focus groups allow researchers to collect preliminary information about a topic or
a phenomenon.
A second important advantage is that focus groups can be conducted quickly. Most
of the time is spent recruiting the respondents.
The cost of focus groups also makes the approach an attractive research method.
Researchers also like focus groups because of the flexibility in question design and
follow-up.
Most professional focus group moderators use a procedure known as an extended
focus group, in which respondents are required to complete a written questionnaire
before the group session begins.
Finally, focus group responses are often more complete and less inhibited than
those from individual interviews.
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Focus group research is not free of complications; the approach is far from perfect.
Some of the problems are discussed here
A self-appointed group leader who monopolizes the conversation and attempts to
impose his or her opinion on other participants dominates some groups.

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Person may have an adverse effect on the performance of the group.
The moderator needs to control such situations tactfully before they get out of
hand.
Unless enough groups are conducted, typical focus group research (4–6 groups) is
inappropriate to gather quantitative data.
Many times people who hire a person or company to conduct a focus group are
disappointed with the results because they expected exact numbers and
percentages. Focus groups do not provide such information unless enough groups
are conducted.
Focus groups depend heavily on the skills of the moderator, who must know when
to probe for further information, when to stop respondents from discussing
irrelevant topics, and how to involve all respondents in the discussion.
Uses of Focus Groups
Morgan (1997) suggests that focus groups can be either (1) self-contained, (2)
supplementary, or (3) multimethod. A self-contained focus group is one in which
the focus group method is the only means of data collection. The results of self-
contained groups can stand on their own; the data from the groups provides a
sufficient answer to the research question. A supplementary focus group is one in
which the group discussions form a starting point or are a source of follow-up data
for a quantitative study.
In the multimethod approach, the focus group method is one of a number of
qualitative and/or quantitative techniques used to collect data about a topic.

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Methodology of Focus Groups
No matter their purpose, there are typically seven basic steps in focus group
research:
1. Define the problem
This step is similar in all types of scientific research: A welldefined problem is
established on the basis of previous investigation or out of curiosity. Some
problems that would be appropriate for the focus group method include pilot
testing ideas, plans, or products; discovering factors that influence opinions,
attitudes, and behaviors; and generating new thoughts or ideas about a situation,
concept, or product.
2. Select a sample
Because focus groups are small, researchers must define a narrow audience for the
study. The type of sample depends on the purpose of the focus group; the sample
might consist of consumers who watch a particular type of television program.
3. Determine the number of groups necessary
To help eliminate part of the problem of selecting a representative group, most
researchers conduct three or more focus groups on the same topic.
4. Prepare the study mechanics
This step includes arranging for the recruitment of respondents (by telephone or
possibly by shopping center intercept), reserving the facilities at which the groups

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will be conducted, and deciding what type of recording (audio and/or video) will
be used.
5. Prepare the focus group materials
Each aspect of a focus group must be planned in detail; nothing should be left to
chance— in particular, the moderator must not be allowed to “wing it.”
Krueger and Casey (2000) offer the following advice when constructing the
moderator’s guide. Good questions:
• Sound conversational
• Use the vocabulary of the participants
• Are easy to say
• Are clear
• Are usually short
• Ask about only one topic
• Include clear directions (on how to answer)
One general method that is sometimes followed in sequencing focus group
questions is called the funnel technique. The moderator starts off with a general
question or two then moves to more specific topics. For example, the first couple
of questions might be about the participants’ travel experiences, the next set might
be about what they prefer in a hotel, and the final group of questions asks them
about their feelings toward a particular hotel chain.

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6. Conduct the session
Focus groups may be conducted in a variety of settings, from professional
conference rooms equipped with one-way mirrors to hotel rooms rented for the
occasion.
7. Analyze the data and prepare a summary report
The written summary of focus group interviews depends on the needs of the study
and the amount of time and money available.
Examples of Focus Groups
Goodman (2002) conducted focus groups among Anglo and Latina women about
their reactions to women’s images in popular magazines. The researcher found that
the respondents’ culture played a role in how they interpreted the images.
[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th
edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An
Introduction. Page: 132-137]
Case Studies
The case study method is another common qualitative research technique. Simply
put, a case study uses as many data sources as possible to systematically
investigate individuals, groups, organizations, or events. Case studies are
conducted when a researcher needs to understand or explain a phenomenon. They
are frequently used in medicine, anthropology, clinical psychology, management
science, and history.
Merriam (1988) lists four essential characteristics of case study research:

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1. Particularistic. This means that the case study focuses on a particular situation,
event, program, or phenomenon, making it a good method for studying practical,
real-life problems.
2. Descriptive. The final product of a case study is a detailed description of the
topic under study.
3. Heuristic. A case study helps people to understand what’s being studied. New
interpretations, new perspectives, new meaning, and fresh insights are all goals of a
case study.
4. Inductive. Most case studies depend on inductive reasoning. Principles and
generalizations emerge from an examination of the data.
Advantages of Case Studies
The case study method is most valuable when the researcher wants to obtain a
wealth of information about the research topic.
Case studies provide tremendous detail. Many times researchers want such detail
when they do not know exactly what they are looking for.
The case study is particularly advantageous to the researcher who is trying to find
clues and ideas for further research.
The case study technique can suggest why something has occurred. For example,
in many cities at the beginning of the 21st century, newspaper publishers tried to
increase diversity in their newsrooms.

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The case study method also affords the researcher the ability to deal with a wide
spectrum of evidence. Documents, historical artifacts, systematic interviews, direct
observations, and even traditional surveys can all be incorporated into a case study.
Disadvantages of Case Studies
There are three main criticisms of case studies. The first has to do with a general
lack of scientific rigor in many case studies.
The second criticism is that the case study is not amenable to generalization.
Finally, like participant observation, case studies are often time consuming and
may occasionally produce massive quantities of data that are hard to summarize.
Conducting a Case Study
There are five distinct stages in carrying out a case study: design, pilot study, data
collection, data analysis, and report writing. The descriptions of these are given
below:
Design
The first concern in case study design is what to ask. The case study is most
appropriate for questions that begin with “how” or “why.” A research question that
is clear and precise focuses the remainder of the efforts in a case study. A second
design concern is what to analyze.

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Pilot Study
Before the pilot study is conducted, the case study researcher must construct a
study protocol. This document describes the procedures to be used in the study and
also includes the data-gathering instrument or instruments.
A pilot study is used to refine both the research design and the field procedures.
Data Collection
At least four sources of data can be used in case studies. Documents, which
represent a rich data source, may take the form of letters, memos, minutes,
agendas, historical records, brochures, pamphlets, posters, and so on.
A second source is the interview. Some case studies make use of survey research
methods and ask respondents to fill out questionnaires; others may use intensive
interviewing.
Observation/participation is the third data collection technique.
The fourth source of evidence used in case studies is the physical artifact—a tool, a
piece of furniture, or even a computer printout.
Most case study researchers recommend using multiple sources of data, thus
permitting triangulation of the phenomenon under study (Rubin, 1984). In addition,
multiple sources help the case study researcher improve the reliability and validity
of the study.

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Data Analysis
Unlike quantitative research techniques, there are no specific formulas or
“cookbook” techniques to guide the researcher in analyzing the data.
Report Writing
The case study report can take several forms. The report can follow the traditional
research study format— problem, methods, findings, and discussion—or it can use
a nontraditional technique. Some case studies are best suited to a chronological
arrangement, whereas comparative case studies can be reported from the
comparative perspective.
Examples of Case Studies
In their case study of the introduction of commercial television in India, Crabtree
and Malhotra (2000) interviewed business personnel, observed practices at a
commercial TV operation, monitored the content of commercial TV, and examined
organizational documents.
[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th
edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An
Introduction. Page: 140-144]
Writing the Qualitative Research Report
Writing a quantitative research report is fairly straightforward. Writing the
qualitative report, however, is more complicated.
In the first place, it is difficult to condense qualitative data into numerical tables
and charts. Qualitative data come in the form of sentences, extended quotes,
paragraphs of description, and even pictures and diagrams.

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Second, there is less standardization of the methods used by qualitative
researchers. Quantitative researchers generally use techniques such as a telephone
survey or an experiment that has methods requiring relatively little description.
On the other hand, a qualitative researcher may use a technique that is particular to
one given setting or a combination of techniques in varying situations.
Third, qualitative researchers may try to give readers a subjective “feel” for the
research setting.
Finally, while quantitative reports are written in an efficient, predictable, albeit
unexciting style, qualitative reports can use more freeform and literary styles.
Much qualitative research is written in a loose narrative style that employs many
devices used in novels and short stories.
The following is a general format for structuring the qualitative report.
1. The Introduction
Similar to its quantitative counterpart, the introduction provides an overview of
the project, the precise research question or problem statement, the study’s
justification, and why the reader should be interested in it. Unlike the quantitative
report, the literature review section may not be extensive. In many qualitative
studies, there may not be much literature available.
2. The Method
This section includes a number of topics that explain what was done in the study:

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a. The method or methods used to collect data and an explanation of why a
particular method was chosen.
b. The research setting. The researcher must provide the reader with a context for
judging the suitability of the setting and to try to give a “feel” of the study.
c. Sampling. Participants or respondents can be recruited in a variety of ways, and
the researcher must describe the recruitment method(s) used.
d. Data collection. This section should explain how the data were collected, such as
field notes from observation, focus group transcripts, tapes of intensive interviews,
or diaries. The explanation should be detailed so that another researcher could
replicate the collection method.
3. Findings
This is generally the longest section in the report as qualitative research generates
a lot of data. The biggest challenge is reducing the data to a manageable size.
Ideally, the report should not be too thick and ominous; nor should it be too thin
and inconsequential. Two guiding principles can help with making the data
manageable.
First, remember that it is impossible to say everything in a research report. Try to
select vignettes, quotes, or examples that most vividly illuminate the findings.
Second, choose data that illustrate the variety of information collected, including
situations that were uncommon or atypical.
Some possibilities for arranging the findings section might include the following
(Chenail, 1995):

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• Organize the material chronologically.
• Present the most important findings first.
• Use a dramatic presentation and save the most important points until the end.
• Arrange the data according to some theoretical or conceptual scheme.
4. Discussion
This section should include a summary, additional implications of the study that
might be explored in future research, and a discussion of the strengths and
weaknesses of the study.
[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th
edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An
Introduction. Page: 148-150]
Conclusion
Rigorous analysis is conducted without the aid of straightforward mathematical
rules. Researchers must demonstrate the validity of their analysis and conclusions,
resulting in longer papers and occasional frustration with the word limits of
appropriate journals.
[Ref. WIMMER, R. D. & DOMINICK, J. R. (9th
edition), MASS MEDIA RESEARCH An
Introduction. Page: 124-150]
Md. Sajjat Hossain
MCJ 3rd
Batch (BRUR)

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