3. Objectives
• Write a brief summary explaining the importance
of conducting a patient interview in 500 words or
less
• Without the use references, list the major
components of a health history
• Using the notes, review the techniques to conduct
a patient interview
• Without the use of references, summarize the
importance of conducting a physical examination
• Verbally describe the four major examination
techniques
4. Patient Evaluation
• Initial Assessment
– Clinical Manifestations
• Patient Interview
• Physical Examination
• Secondary Assessment
– Diagnostic Studies
• Arterial Blood Gases
• Pulmonary Function Studies
• Chest Films
• Other Diagnostic Procedures as Indicated
5. Patient Interview
• Determine Level of Consciousness
– Normal: alert & cooperative
– Lethargic
– Confused
– Obtunded: diminished cough or gag
– Semi-comatose: responds to painful stimuli
– Coma: unresponsive to pain
6. Patient Interview
• Orientation of time, place and person
– Well oriented, cooperative
• Able to follow simple commands
– Disoriented, confused
– Inability to cooperate:
• Language difficulties
• Influence of medications
• Hearing loss
• Fear, depression
7. Patient Interview
• Assess Emotional State
– Anxiety
• Respiratory distress, hypoxemia
– Depression
• Quiet or withdrawn, in denial
– Anger
• Combative, irritable
– Euphoria
• Influence of drugs
– Panic
• Hypoxia, air hunger, status asthmaticus
8. Patient Interview
• Measure Subjective Symptoms
– Orthopnea
• Difficulty breathing except in upright position
– General Malaise
• Run down, nausea, weakness, fatigue
– Dyspnea
• Feeling SOB
– Grade I: normal dyspnea after unusual tension
– Grade II: breathless after going up hill or stairs
– Grade III: dyspnea while walking at normal speed
– Grade IV: dyspnea moving slowly & short distances
– Grade V: dyspnea at rest, small tasks
9. Patient Interview
• Pain
– Location
– Quality (what kind is it)
– Severity
– Aggravating factors
– Relieving factors
– History (when did it start and how did it progress)
– Context (circumstances of onset)
– Accompanying Symptoms
10. Patient Interview
• Symptoms of Nose and Throat
– Nasal secretions
• Amount
• Irritants, allergies
– Itching or burning sensation of nose and throat
– Dysphagia
• Difficulty swallowing
• Hoarseness
11. Patient Interview
• History of present illness
– Current medical/physical problems
– Current meds, including herbs, etc.
• Past medical history
– Previous medical problems, hospitalizations,
surgeries, drug allergies, etc
• Family history
– Heart disease, diabetes, COPD, etc.
12. Interview Techniques
• Ask open ended questions
– No yes or no questions
• Communicate using simple language
– KISS Method
– Use pictures, diagrams
– Interpreter for those with language barriers
15. Assessment By Inspection
• Peripheral Edema
– Presence of excessive fluid in the tissue
– Pitting Edema
– Occurs primarily in arms and ankles
– Caused by CHF, Renal insufficiency/failure
– Rated +1, +2, +3
• The higher the number, the greater the swelling
17. Assessment By Inspection
• Clubbing of fingers
– Suggestive of pulmonary disease
– Caused by chronic hypoxia
– Can affect thumb, fingers and toes
– Condition is present when the angle of the nail
bed and skin increases
18. Assessment By Inspection
• Venous Distention
– Occurs with CHF
– Seen in patients with obstructive lung disease
– Seen during exhalation because of the
obstructive component
19. Assessment By Inspection
• Capillary Refill
– Quick check of perfusion
– Blanching of hand or nail beds and watch for
blood return
– Normally 3-5 seconds
– Commonly performed for the Allen’s Test
before arterial blood gas puncture
20. Assessment By Inspection
• Diaphoresis
– State of perfuse/heavy sweating
– Heart failure
– Fever, infection
– Anxiety, nervousness
– Tuberculosis (night sweats)
21. Assessment By Inspection
• Skin Color
– Normal: pink
– Abnormal: pale
• Due to anemia or blood loss
– Jaundice: yellow
• Increase in bilirubin, mostly face & trunk
– Erythema: redness
• Capillary congestion, inflammation, infection
– Cyanosis: blue/gray
• Hypoxia (5 g of reduced hemoglobin)
22. Assessment By Inspection
• Chest Configuration
– Normal: A-P diameter
• Straight spine, no alterations in chest size
– Pectus Carinatum
• Anterior protrusion of the sternum
– Pectus Excavatum
• Depression of the sternum
– Kyphosis
• Hunchback or convex spine curve
– Scoliosis
• Lateral curve of the spine
– Kyphoscoliosis: combination of both
– Barrel Chest
• Increased A-P diameter resulting form air trapping
23. Assessment By Inspection
• Movement of Chest/Diaphragm
– Symmetrical movement
– Unequal movement
• Chronic lung disease
• Atelectasis
• Pneumothorax
• Flail Chest – paradoxical
• Intubated with ET tube in one lung
24. Assessment By Inspection
• Breathing Patterns
– Eupnea – normal rate, depth, rhythm
– Tachypnea- over 20 bpm
• Fever, hypoxia, pain, CNS problem
– Bradypnea- less than 8 bpm
• Variable depth and irregular rhythm
– Apnea- cessation of breathing
– Hyperpnea- increased rate & depth, regular
rhythm
• Metabolic/CNS disorders
25. Assessment By Inspection
• Breathing Patterns
– Cheyne Stokes- gradual increasing the decreasing rate
and depth in a cycle with periods of apnea
• Increased ICP, Meningitis, overdose
– Biots- increased rate and depth with irregular periods of
apnea
• CNS problem
– Kussmauls- increased rate (>20) increased depth,
irregular rhythm, seems labored
• Metabolic acidosis, renal failure, diabetic ketoacidosis
26. Assessment By Inspection
• Breathing Patterns
– Apneustic- prolonged gasping inspiration
followed by extremely short, insufficient
expiration
• Problem with respiratory centers, trauma or tumor
27. Assessment By Inspection
• Muscle use
– These muscles are used to increase ventilation
during times of stress, increased airway
resistance, etc.
28. Assessment By Inspection
• Muscle Use
Muscles used during Normal Breathing
– Diaphragm
– External Intercostals
– Exhalation is passive
29. Assessment By Inspection
• Accessory Muscle Use
– Used to increase ventilation
Muscles of normal ventilation PLUS
• Intercostals, scalene, sternocleidomastoid, PLUS
• Abdominal muscles
30. Assessment By Inspection
• Retractions
– Chest moves inward during inspiration instead of
outward
– Due to a blocked (obstructed airway)
– A sign of respiratory distress in infants
• Nasal Flaring
– Flaring of the nostrils during inspiration
– A sign of respiratory distress in infants sometimes
accompanied by grunting
31. Assessment By Inspection
• Character of Cough
– Strong, moderate, weak
– Productive, nonproductive
– Frequent, infrequent
– Tight, moist
33. Assessment By Palpation
• Tracheal Deviation
– Pulled toward pathology (inside lung)
• Atelectasis
• Pneumonectomy
• Diaphragmatic paralysis
– Pulled away from pathology (outside lung)
• Massive pleural effusion
• Tension Pneumothorax
• Neck or thyroid mass
• Large mediastinal mass
34. Assessment By Palpation
• Tactile Fremitus
– Vibration felt by hand on the chest wall
• Vocal fremitus-voice vibrations on the chest wall
• Pleural rub fremitus – grating sensation due to
roughened pleural surfaces rubbing together
• Rhonchial fremitus – secretions in the airway
35. Assessment By Palpation
• Tenderness
– Around suture sites, chest tubes, fractures
– Avoid areas of tenderness if possible
36. Assessment By Palpation
• Chest Motion Symmetry
– Hands placed on the patient’s chest move in
symmetry. If one hand moves more than the
other, it indicates asymmetrical chest expansion
37. Assessment By Percussion
• Performed by placing the middle finger between
two ribs and tapping the middle finger’s first joint
with the middle fingers of the opposite hand.
– Resonance- normal air filled lung; hollow sound
– Flat- over sternum, muscle or atelectasis; full sound
– Dull-fluid filled organs; pleural effusion or pneumonia;
thudding sound
– Tympany-air filled stomach; drum like sound
– Hyperresonance-Areas of the lung with pneumothorax
or emphysema. Booming sound.
38. Assessment By Auscultation
• Normal Breath Sounds- vesicular
– Bilateral vesicular: normal in both lungs
– Bronchial vesicular: normal over the trachea or
bronchi
39. Assessment By Auscultation
• Increased, decreased, unequal or absent
– Always compare one lung with the other
– Egophany: “E” sound like “A”. Consolidation
– Bronchophony & whispered pectoriloquy: increased
intensity of voice when spoken. Indicated
consolidation and pneumonia
– An increase in voice indicates consolidation and
pneumonia
– A decrease in voice indicates obstructed bronchi,
pneumothorax, emphysema
40. Assessment By Auscultation
• Abnormal Breath Sounds – adventitious
– Rales (crackles)- fluid/secretions
• Coarse (rhonchi)- large airway secretions
– Suction the pt/cough
• Medium
– Pt needs CPT
• Fine (moist crepitant rales)- alveoli fluid
– Pt has CHF/pulmonary edema
– PT needs IPPB, heart drugs, diuretics and oxygen
41. Assessment By Auscultation
• Wheezes
– Bronchospasm
– Patient needs a bronchodilator
– Unilateral wheezes indicative of FBO
42. Assessment By Auscultation
• Stridor
– Upper Airway Obstruction
• Supraglottic swelling (epiglottitis)
• Subglottic swelling (croup, post extubation)
• Foreign body aspiration
– Treatment
• Topical decongestant (racemic epinephrine)
• Suction/bronchoscopy
• Intubation for severe swelling and epiglottitis
43. Assessment By Auscultation
• Pleural Friction Rub
– Caused by infection
– A coarse grating or crunching sound
– Inflamed visceral and parietal pleural surfaces
rubbing together
– Associated with pleurisy, TB, pneumonia,
cancer, etc.
– Treat with steroids, antibiotics as indicated