Risk Analysis and Environmental Health HazardsChapter 4.docx

Risk Analysis and Environmental Health Hazards
Chapter 4
Pesticides and ChildrenMore harmful to children than
adultsGreater exposurePlaying in contaminated fieldsPutting
fingers/things in mouthGreater responseDeveloping bodies,
more sensitiveRange of EffectsCancer, mental and/or physical
disabilitiesIntelligenceMotor skills
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Pesticides and Children
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Learning Objectives:
Define risk and risk assessment
Explain how risk assessment helps is manage potential health

threats
A Perspective on Risks
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A Perspective on RisksRiskThe probability of harm (injury,
disease, death, environmental damage) occurring under certain
circumstancesInherent in our actions and our
environmentWalking on stairs, using household appliances,
driving/riding cars, flying, etc.Few of us think twice about it,
even though it’s riskyIn order to manage risks, we need to have
a sense of their causes, likelihoods, and effects
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A Perspective on RisksRisk ManagementThe process of
identifying, assessing, and reducing risks.Qualitative and
quantitative methodEstimates the probability that an even will
occur, so we can determine behavior/actions

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A Perspective on RisksCurious dilemma:People accept big risks
1/3 of smokers die of diseases caused by smoking Average life
expectancy is 8 yrs less for smokers)Get upset over very small
risks1 in 1 million chance of getting cancer from pesticide
residues on food)Perhaps due to perception of risks as things we
can control smoking, diet, exercise, etc. vs. things we “can’t”
controlPlane crashes, pesticides, nuclear waste
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Global Climate Change
What are risk and risk assessment?
What are the four steps of risk assessment?
Environmental Health HazardsLearning Objectives:
Define toxicology and epidemiology
Explain why public water supplies are monitored for fecal
coliform bacteria despite the fact that most strains of E. coli do
not cause disease
Describe the link between environmental changes and emerging
diseases, such as swine flu
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Environmental Health HazardsToxicantsChemicals with adverse
effects on healthAll chemicals are toxic if exposure is high
enoughToxicology studies the effects of toxicants on living
organismsstudies the mechanisms that cause toxicitydevelops
ways to prevent or minimize adverse effects
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Environmental Health HazardsEpidemiologyThe study of the

effects of chemical (toxicants), biological (disease), and
physical agents (accidents, radiation) on the health of human
populationsStudies large groups of people and investigate range
of causes and types of disease and injuries
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Environmental Health HazardsToxicityAcuteImmediate (short-
term) effects after a single exposure; dizziness, nausea,
deathChronicProlonged effects, to long-term exposure to
toxicant
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Environmental Health HazardsDisease-Causing Agents in the
EnvironmentPathogens: disease-causing organismsUsually
microorganisms: viruses, bacteria, protozoaTransmissible in the
environment (contaminated water, food, etc.)Non-transmissible
in the environment (e.g., AIDS)Sewage-contaminated
waterEnvironmental threat to public healthFecal Coliform
TestTests water for coliform bacteria (like E. coli)
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Environmental Health Hazards
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Environmental Health HazardsEnvironmental Changes and
Emerging DiseasesEnvironmental factors remain a significant
cause of disease in the world, despite medical advances25% of
injury and disease is related to human-caused environmental
changesSome effects are direct and obvious:Drinking
contaminate water and contract dysenteryCauses diarrhea,
which causes 4 million deaths/yrSome effects are indirect and
complex:Disruption of natural environments may give disease-
causing agents an opportunity to thrive and reach human
populationsCutting down forests, building dams, etc., increases
contact with, and distribution of, disease-causing agents
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Environmental Health HazardsSocial factors may affect
spreading of disease:Concentrated urban populationsGlobal
travelPopulation Growth (which requires opening of new land
for agriculture and dwellings)MalariaMosquito transmitted
disease200-500 million infections annually, 1 million deaths60
different species of mosquitoes transmit parasiteEach species
has unique combination of optimal environment: elevation,
precipitation, temperature, humidity, surface water.
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Environmental Health HazardsPandemicDisease reaches nearly
all parts of the worldInfluenza (flu)Avian influenza affects
birds and then infects humansHard to transmit to humans, but
once infected, human mortality is highH1N1(Swine) FluLate
Spring 2009, MexicoPandemic by early SummerUnderstanding
and controlling pandemics requires:understanding of the
environment and conditions that allow the virus to survive and

travelCooperation among many governments and individuals
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What is the difference between acute and chronic toxicity?
Why is the fecal coliform test performed on public drinking
water supplies?
How is the incidence of malaria related to human activities that
alter the environment?
Movement and Fate of ToxicantsLearning Objectives:
Distinguish among persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological
magnification of toxicants
Discuss the mobility of persistent toxicants in the environment
Describe the purpose of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants

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Movement and Fate of ToxicantsSome toxicants are particularly
dangerousResist degradationTravel quickly in the
environmentRadioactive isotopes, some pesticides, PBDEs,
PCBs.DDTPesticide banned in the US in 1972Causes birds to
lay eggs with thin shellsChicks die, species face extinction
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Movement and Fate of ToxicantsImpact of DDT on
Birds:PersistenceSubstance is very stable, takes years to break
down into less toxic formBioaccumulationWhen an organism
can’t break down (metabolize) a toxicant, it stores it in its
tissues. The buildup of a persistent toxicant in an organism over
time is bioaccumulation
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Movement and Fate of ToxicantsImpact of DDT on
Birds:Biological magnificationthe increase in toxicant
concentrations as it passes through successive levels of a food
chainTop carnivores are at most riskDDT sprayed for

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Environmental InSight
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Movement and Fate of ToxicantsMobility in the
EnvironmentPersistent toxicants move through soil, water, and
airE.g., agricultural pesticides get washed by rain into a stream,
hurts aquatic lifeAt high concentrations, life will dieAt lower
concentrations, will have chronic toxicity symptoms, e.g., bone
degeneration, decreased competitive ability
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Movement and Fate of Toxicants
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Movement and Fate of ToxicantsMobility in the
EnvironmentEnvironmental Working Group, 1994Analyzed 5
common herbicides found in drinking water3.5 million people in
the Midwest have elevated cancer risk due to exposure to
herbicidesEPA has mandated a reduction in the use of those
herbicides
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Global Ban of Persistent Organic PollutantsStockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001UN treaty to
protect human health form the 12 most toxic persistent organic
pollutants (POPs)Requires countries to develop plans to
eliminate the production and use of intentionally produced
POPsException: DDT used to control malaria mosquitoes. No
affordable alternatives
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What is a persistent toxicant?
How does DDT become magnified through a food chain?
What problems are associated with bioaccumulation and
biological magnification?
What is the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants?
How We Determine the Health Effects of PollutantsLearning
Objectives:
Describe how a dose-response curve is used to determine the
health effects of environmental pollutants
Describe the most common method of determining whether a
chemical causes cancer
Distinguish among addictive, synergistic, and antagonistic
interactions in chemical mixtures

Explain why children are particularly susceptible to toxicants
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Toxicity MeasuresDose - the amount that enters the
bodyResponse - type and amount of damage to a particular
doseLethal dose- causes deathExpressed in mg/kg of body
weightSub-lethal dose- causes harm, but not death
How We Determine the Health Effects of Pollutants
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Toxicity MeasuresFinding the Lethal DoseAdminister different
doses to lab animalsAmount that kills 50% of test animals is
called LD50The smaller the LD50, the more toxic the chemical
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Toxicity MeasuresEffective dose - 50 percent (ED50)Causes
50% of the population to exhibit a variety of responses, such
as,Effects on fetus of a pregnant animal, reduced enzyme
activity, hair lossThreshold levelThe maximum dose at which
the toxicant has no measurable effect. Found by producing a
Dose-Response CurveTest the effects of a high dose and work
the way down to the threshold levelMany chemicals have NO
safe level
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Carcinogens: Cancer-Causing SubstancesMethods to
detectExpose rats to levels of substance and count how many
animals develop cancer.Humans are not ratsLab rats are exposed
to massive doses not relative to their body weightBodies
respond to small and large doses of the same chemical in

different waysRisk Assessment assumes that we can extrapolate
from these experiments- there are problems, BUT we can tell
when a chemical is ‘safe’Another method is to collect data from
accidental exposures of humans to various chemicals (industrial
accidents)
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Risk Assessment of Chemical MixturesMost studies are done on
single chemicalsMost exposures in the environment are to
mixtures of chemicalsChemicals can interact in various
ways:AdditivityCombined effects of 2 substances add
upSynergyCombined effect of substances is greater than
expectedAntagonismCombined effect of substances is smaller
than expected
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Children and Chemical ExposureChildren are more susceptible
than adultsChildren weigh less than adultsRapid growth and

development Rapid metabolismChildren and Air
PollutionGreater threat to children than adultsPollution restricts
lung development in childhoodRapid metabolism needs more
oxygenChildren breathe about twice the amount of air per pound
of body weight than adultsLos Angeles found that 80% of
children who died for reasons other than respiratory disease,
had lung damage
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The Precautionary Principle
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EnviroDiscoverySmoking: A Significant RiskLargest cause of
preventable deathCauses serious diseasesResponsible for
premature death of 500,000 people in the US per year (5 million
worldwide)Passive smoking also increases risk of cancerGood
News:Tobacco use in the US is going downAnti-tobacco

campaigns are workingBad News:Tobacco companies are
promoting their products abroadSmoking is increasing in
developing nationsUS refuses to sign 2005 international treaty
to ban tobacco advertising worldwide
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What is a dose-response curve?
What is one way that scientists determine whether a chemical
causes cancer? What are two problems with this method?
What are three ways that chemical mixtures interact?
The Precautionary PrincipleLearning Objectives:
Discuss the precautionary principle as it relates to the
introduction of new technologies or products
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The Precautionary PrincipleStates that we should not introduce
a new technology, practice, or material until it is demonstrated
that:
The risks are small

The benefits outweigh the risksPuts the burden of proof onto the
developersNeed to demonstrate that a product is safe before we
use it, instead of finding out that it is harmful after the fact“An
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”
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The Precautionary PrincipleTo many people it’s common
senseThere is also much controversy:Scientists worry that it
endorses the making of decisions without the input of
scienceEuropean nations have banned beef from US and Canada
because of the use of hormones to make cattle grow fasterFear
that humans may be harmed by those hormonesAnother
example: genetically modified foods
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The Precautionary Principle
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What is the precautionary principle?
What are two criticisms of the precautionary principle?

Case StudyEndocrine DisruptersEvidence that industrial and
agricultural chemicals are endocrine disrupters of humans and
animalsHormones: Some disrupters mimic estrogens and
androgensFemale and male sex hormonesAffect reproductive
development of animals, including humansCongress dictated
that EPA develop a plan to test potential endocrine disrupters
as part of the Food Quality Protection Act, and the Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1996
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Case Study
Environmental History, Politics, and Economics
Chapter 3

Renewable Energy Policy ChallengesGovernments struggle to
develop climate change policies:Costs of reducing climate
change and the effects of not doing so are hugeScientists agree
that human-caused climate change is happening and will
worsenPublic and policy makers are skepticalOne of the biggest
issues: Shifting to alternative energy sourcesFossil fuels are
largest source of greenhouse gasesAlternative sources (wind,
solar) may have aesthetic, noise, environmental, tourism
implications
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Renewable Energy Policy Challenges
Conservation and Preservation of ResourcesLearning
Objectives:
Define conservation and preservation, and distinguish between
them
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Conservation and Preservation of ResourcesResources:Any part
of the natural environment used to promote the welfare of
people or other speciesConservation:Sensible and careful
management of natural resourcesTerracing farmland to prevent
erosionCrop rotation to enhance soil fertilityIrrigation to
increase crop yieldPreservation:Setting aside undisturbed areas
maintaining them in a pristine state protecting them from human
activities that might alter their natural state
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Conservation and Preservation of Resources
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What is conservation?
What is preservation?
How does conservation differ from preservation?
Environmental HistoryLearning Objectives:
Briefly outline the environmental history of the United States
Describe the contributions of the following people to our

understanding of the environment:John James Audubon, Henry
David Thoreau, George Perkins Marsh, Theodore Roosevelt,
Gifford Pinchot, John Muir, Franklin Roosevelt, Also Leopold,
Wallace Stegner, Rachel Carson, Paul Ehrlich, Julian Simon.
Distinguish between utalitarian conservationists and biocentric
preservationists
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Environmental HistoryThe first 200 years of US history were a
time of widespread environmental destruction (1600s–
1800s)Prevailing ‘frontier’ attitude was that of conquering
nature and profiting from it.
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Environmental HistoryProtecting Forests:John James Audubon
(1785–1851)Painted portraits of birds and other animals,
increased knowledge and interest in wildlifeHenry David
Thoreau (1817–1862)Writer, lived on Walden Pond, early
advocate of lifestyle simplicity to live in harmony with
natureGeorge Perkins Marsh (1801–1882)Wrote “Man and
Nature” about humans as agents of environmental change
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Environmental History
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Environmental HistoryAmerican Forestry Association
(1875)Citizens against the destruction of America’s
forestsForest Reserve Act (1891)Presidential authority to
establish forest reserves on federal land, out of the reach of
loggersHarrison, Cleveland, McKinley, T. Roosevelt used it to
create 43 million acres’ worth of preserves.Law was later
modified to require act of CongressRoosevelt signed it after
creating 21 new national forests, protecting an additional 16
million acres.Appointed Gifford Pinchot head of the US Forest
Service
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Roosevelt and Pinchot were Utalitarian ConservationistsValued
natural resources because of their usefulness to humans (jobs
and renewable resources)Used them sensibly and carefully:
sustainablyPinchot supported Expanding forest
reservesManaging them scientifically (harvesting trees at
sustainable rate)

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Environmental HistoryNational Parks and MonumentsCongress
(1872)First National Park: YellowstoneJohn Muir (1838–
1914)Biocentric preservationist: believed in protecting nature
from human interference because all forms of life deserve
respect and considerationFounded Sierra ClubNational
Conservation Association, still activeAdvocated the creation
National Parks in CaliforniaYosemite National Park Bill
(Congress, 1890)
Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks.
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Environmental HistoryAntiquities Act (1906)Presidential
authority to set aside sites of scientific, historic, or prehistoric
importanceBy 1916: 16 National Parks and 21National
Monuments, managed by US ArmyNow: 58 National Parks, 74
National Monuments, managed by National Park
ServiceNational Park Service, (1916) created to manage parks
and monuments for enjoyment “without impairment”Conflicts

over preservation of sites such as Hetch Hetchy Valley
(Yosemite) in 1913; dam was built, valley flooded1950s, dam
was not built within Dinosaur National Monument, because
filling the canyon with 400 ft of water would impair it
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Environmental HistoryConservation in Mid-20th
CenturyFranklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945)Civilian
Conservation Corps:Response to Great Depression500,000 jobs
in activities to protect natural resources (planting trees, making
paths in parks and forests, controlling floods)Soil Conservation
Service (1935)Response to American Dust Bowl, 1930s
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Environmental HistoryAldo Leopold (1886–1948)A Sand
County Almanac (1949)Argued for a Land ethic and Wildlife
ConservationSacrifices RequiredInfluenced many after him,
includingWallace Stegner (1909–1993)Supported Wilderness

Act of 1964Wilderness Essay
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Rachel Carson (1907–1964)Marine BiologistSilent Spring
(1962)Raised public concern about pesticide use, esp.
DDTDangers to birds and other wildlife, contaminating human
food supplyUltimately led to the restrictions on pesticide use
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Paul Ehrlich The Population Bomb (1968)World’s population
was 3.5 BillionHuge impact on Earth’s life support
systemsRaised public’s awareness of dangers of
overpopulationJulian Simon (1932–1998)Ehrlich’s
criticTechnological advances outpace the negative impacts of
population growth

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Environmental HistoryThe Environmental
MovementEnvironmentalists People concerned about the
environmentEnvironmental MovementSpring 1970 - Earth
DayStudent Denis Hayes with support of Senator Gaylord
NelsonAwakened US environmental consciousness20 million
people planted trees, cleaned roadsides and riverbanks, marched
in parades to support resource conservation and environmental
quality
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EnviroDiscovery
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How did public perception of the environment evolve during the
20th century?
What was the environmental contribution of Rachel Carson?

How did Aldo Leopold influence the conservation movement of
the mid- to late- 20th century?
Environmental LegislationLearning Objectives:
Explain why the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is
the cornerstone of US environmental law
Describe how environmental impact statements provide
powerful protection of the environment
Define full cost accounting
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Environmental LegislationNational Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA)Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)1970NEPA
requires the federal government to consider the environmental
impact of proposed dams, highways, etc.Must develop
Environmental Impact StatementsEISs must accompany
proposalsdescribe short- and long-term environmental impact
and alternatives with fewer adverse effectsNEPA must solicit
public comments on an EIS
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Environmental Legislation
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Environmental LegislationCouncil on Environmental
QualityEstablished by NEPAReports to President on EISsNEPA
revolutionized environmental protection in the USOne-third of
land in US is under federal controlIESs are required for
highway construction, flood and erosion control, military
projects, fossil fuels, mineral reserves, public grazing land and
public forests.Little gets done without some sort of
environmental reviewNEPA has critics:EISs incomplete, get
ignoredEISs delay important projects
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Environmental LegislationEnvironmental
RegulationsEnvironmental problem is recognizedUS
Congressperson drafts legislationFull cost accounting is
considered (relative benefits and costs of various
alternatives)Legislation goes to EPA, translated into
of Management and Budget (OMB) reviews new
regulationsImplementation and enforcement falls on statesStates
report back to EPA

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Environmental LegislationAccomplishments40 major
environmental laws since 1970Endangered species, clean water,
clean air, energy conservation, hazardous waste,
pesticidesImproved environmental quality15 new National Parks
(106+ million acres)Soil erosion has been reduced by 60%Many
endangered species are recoveringPollution Control has been
successful (but needs lots more work)EPA’s 2008 Report on the
Environment
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Why is the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is the
cornerstone of US environmental law?
What are environmental impact statements?
How does full cost accounting influence environmental decision
making?
Environmental EconomicsLearning Objectives:
Explain how economics is related to natural capital. Make sure
you include sources and sinks
Give two reasons why the national income accounts are
incomplete estimates of national economic performance
Distinguish among the following economic terms: marginal cost
of pollution, marginal cost of pollution abatement, and optimum
amount of pollution
Describe various incentive-based regulatory approaches,
including environmental taxes and tradable permits
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Environmental EconomicsEconomicsStudy of how people use
limited resource to satisfy unlimited wantsSupply and demand
priceSuppliers produce as long as selling price is more than cost
of productionInteraction between demand, supply, cost, and
price drives the economyEconomy depends on natural
environmentSources for raw materialsSinks for waste products

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Environmental EconomicsNatural CapitalEarth’s resources and
processes that sustain living organisms, including
humansSources and Sinks are part of natural capital: Minerals,
forests, soils, water, clean air, wildlife, fisheriesEnvironment
provides natural capital for human production and
consumptionLong-term economic future is threatened
byResource degradation = overuse of sourcesResource pollution
= overuse of sinks
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National Income Accounts & EnvironmentMeasures of the total
income of a nation’s goods and services for a given yearGDP =
gross domestic productNDP = net domestic productEconomic
well-being depends on natural resources (land, rivers, timber,
ocean, oil, air)National Income Accounts should
include:ProfitsCostsNatural resource depletionEnvironmental
degradation GDP and NDP are incorrect because they do not
take into account costs of depletion and pollution Better

Accounting will help determine when the benefits of production
(economic and environmental) exceed the costs
Environmental Economics
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Environmental EconomicsNatural Resource DepletionGDP =
NDP + depreciationNDP is a measure of net production of an
economy, after deducting used-up capital (costs of production,
labor, wear of equipment)However:Oil company drains oil from
an underground field, the value is counted as part of GDP, with
NO deduction to account for the fact that oil is a non-renewable
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Costs and Benefits of Pollution ControlChoices:Company
produces $100 million, can dump waste and pollute local
riverCompany produces $90 million, uses 10 million to properly

dispose of waste, no pollutionCurrently:If firm chooses to
pollute, it contributes more to the GDP, because there is no
explicit value to keeping the river clean!!!Ideally:Economic
cost of environmental degradation should be deducted from
GDPEconomic benefits of improving (or not harming) the
environment should be added to GDP
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Environmental EconomicsAn Economist’s View of PollutionOne
of the causes of the world’s pollution problems is the failure to
include external costs in the prices of goodsExternal
costsHarmful environmental cost, borne by people not directly
involved in selling or buying the productFor example: the
pollution released when fossil fuels are burned and pollution
released to transport a product Encourages pollution. If full
cost were added, people might not purchase such products
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How Much Pollution is Acceptable?Trade-off betweenProtecting
environmental qualityProducing more goodsInvolves balancing
the marginal cost (added cost per unit) of The cost of more
pollution (degrading the environment)The cost of eliminating
pollution (in terms of giving up goods)
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Environmental EconomicsMarginal Cost of PollutionAdded cost
of an additional unit of pollutionDamage to health, property,
agricultureCost of damage must be assigned dollar
valuesMarginal Cost of Sulfur DioxideWaste product of fossil
ecosystemsThe more sulfur dioxide pollution, the higher the
damage to the environment
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Environmental EconomicsMarginal Cost of Pollution

AbatementThe added cost of reducing one unit of a given type
of pollutionCost rises as the level of pollution declinesMarginal
Cost of Reducing Automobile EmissionsRelatively inexpensive
to reduce emissions by 50%Reducing by 50% again requires
costly devices
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Environmental EconomicsCost-Benefit DiagramHelps
policymakers make decisions about the costs of particular
actions and the benefits that would occur if those actions were
implementedOptimum Amount of PollutionThe point were the
marginal cost of pollution equals the marginal cost of
abatementThe cost to society of less pollution is offset by the
benefits to society by the activity creating the pollution
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Economic Strategies for Pollution ControlCommand and Control
RegulationsPollution control laws that work by setting limits on
levels of pollutionSometimes require a specific method of
pollution control, e.g., catalytic converters in carsSometimes set
a quantitative goal, e.g., Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, set
a goal of 60% reduction of NOx emissions by 2003
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Incentive-Based RegulationsWork by establishing emission
targets and providing industries with incentives to reduce
emissionsIdeally, industries internalize external costs, to reach
optimum amount of pollution levelEnvironmental TaxesPolluter
gets taxed for polluting Tradable Permits (cap and
trade)Allowable amount of pollution limit is set . Companies
who pollute less can sell their pollution rights to others
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What is natural capital?

Why are national income accounts incomplete estimates of total
national performance?
How do command and control regulation and incentive-based
regulation differ regarding pollution control?
Case Study
Tradable Permits and Acid RainInternational policy experts
believe that cap and trade system is the most promising to
manage climate change problemEncourages people/countries to
find innovative and cheap ways to reduce emissions
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Case Study
Tradable Permits and Acid RainEPA 1970s–80s command and
control regulations mandated coal-burning power plants to
reduce sulfur emissionsPlants installed expensive equipmentBy
1980s, plants knew of cheaper ways, but had not incentive to
adopt them
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Case Study

Tradable Permits and Acid RainClean Air Act Amendment of
1990EPA can limit the amount of sulfur emissionsEach year is
lower amountPermits can be bought and sold in marketIndustry
adopted a variety of technologies to reduce emissionsAt lower
than expected costAhead of EPA’s reduction schedulesCap and
Trade doesn’t always workNot successful with water
pollutionMore complex situation
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Case Study
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Environmental Sustainability and Human Values
Chapter 2
The Global Commons
The Tragedy of the Commons
(1968 essay)Garrett HardinOur inability to solve
environmental problems stems from the conflict between short-

term individual welfare and long-term environmental
sustainabilityUsed Medieval shared pastureland (the commons)
as example.
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The Global Commons
Human Use of the EarthLearning Objectives:
Define sustainable development
Outline some of the
Complexities associated with the concept of sustainable
consumption
Define voluntary simplicity
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Sustainability The ability to meet humanity’s current needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needsSustainable DevelopmentEconomic growth that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needsMust meet the needs of
the poorCan only occur within the limits of the
environmentCannot sustain everyone at the levels of

consumption of the US, Europe, and Japan.
Human Use of the Earth
Consumption overpopulation: People use more than their share
of resourcesAffluent lifestyleLeads to pollution and
degradationSustainable Consumption: People use their share of
resources to meets their needsMust improve the quality of life
for the poorMinimizes the use of resourcesVoluntary Simplicity
Voluntary SimplicityRequires behavioral change: purchasing
less Accumulation of goods does not equal happinessValues and
character define a person, not what they ownE.g., car-sharing,
using public transportation, etc.Not popular with politicians and

consumers
What is sustainable development?
What is sustainable consumption? How is it linked to a
reduction in world poverty?
How is voluntary simplicity an example of sustainable
consumption?
Human Values and
Environmental ProblemsLearning Objectives:
Define environmental ethics.
Discuss the distinguishing features of the Western and deep
ecology worldviews.

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Ethics: branch of philosophy that deals with human
valuesEnvironmental Ethics: considers the moral basis of
environmental responsibilityConsiders the rights of people
living today AND of future generationsCritical because our
actions today affect the environment in the future
Human Values and
Environmental Problems
Human Values and
Worldviews: personal perspectives, based on valuesHelp us
make sense of the worldWhat is right and wrongLead to
behaviors and lifestylesMay or may not be compatible with
environmental sustainability
Human Values and

Environmental Worldview:How the environment worksOur
place in the environmentRight and wrong environmental
behaviorsTwo extremes;Western WorldviewDeep Ecology
Worldview
Human Values and
Western Worldview:Expansionist, human-centeredFrontier
attitude; conquer and exploit natureHuman superiority over
natureUnrestricted use of natural resourcesUnrestricted
economic growthAnthropocentric perspective
Human Values and
Human Values and
Deep Ecology:1970s: Arne Naess, Bill Devall, George

SessionsBased on harmony with natureSpiritual respect for
lifeHumans and other species have equal worthRequires radical
shift in modern thinkingAppreciating quality of life, rather than
a high standard of livingBiocentric perspective
Human Values and
Human Values and
Human Values and
What is environmental ethics?
What assumptions are made in the deep ecology worldview?

Environmental JusticeLearning Objectives:
What is environmental justice and which communities are
exposed to a disproportionate share of environmental hazards?
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Environmental JusticeEvery citizen has the right to adequate
protection from environmental hazardsLow-income
communities/minorities are more likely to be in polluted areas,
and near landfills, toxic waste facilities, etc.Tend to have lower
access to health careRights of the poor and disenfranchised vs.
the rights of rich and powerful
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Environmental Justice
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What is environmental science? What are some of the
disciplines involved in environmental science?
What are the five steps of the scientific method? Why is each
important?
An Overall Plan for
Sustainable LivingLearning Objectives:
Relate poverty and population growth to carrying capacity and
global sustainability.
Discuss problems related to loss of forests and declining
biological diversity.
Describe the extent of food diversity.
Define enhanced greenhouse effect and explain how stabilizing
climate is related to energy use.
Describe at least two problems in cities in the developing world.
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Lester R. Brown, 2006. Plan B 2.0
5 recommendations:
Eliminate poverty and stabilize human population
Protect and restore Earth’s resources
Provide adequate food for all people
Mitigate climate change
Design sustainable cities
An Overall Plan for

Sustainable Living
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An Overall Plan for Sustainable Living
Eliminate Poverty and Stabilize Human PopulationGlobal
distribution of resources is unevenUS 5% of world’s pop
controls 25% of resources29,000 infants and children die each
dayLack of food and basic medicineRaising the standard of
living of the world’s poorUniversal education of
childrenElimination of illiteracyImproving the status of women
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An Overall Plan for Sustainable LivingCarrying CapacityThe
maximum population that can be sustained by a given
environment/worldPopulation Growth rates are highest where
poverty is highestFamily planningEducationWomen’s status
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“The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the
abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide
enough for those who have too little.”
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1937
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2) Protect and Restore Earth’s ResourcesForestsUnsustainable

logging and burning, are making them a non-renewable
resourceBiodiversityNumber and variety of organismsEconomic
Services: food, medicine, energy, building, clothing
materialsEcosystem Services: protection of watersheds,
agricultural lands, climate, habitats
*
3)Provide Adequate Food for All PeopleFood insecurityPeople
lack access to food needed to live healthy, productive
livesPeople live in chronic hunger and malnutrition800 million
people worldwide, many childrenMostly rural areas, developing
countriesImprove AgricultureHighest priority for global
sustainability
*
*
An Overall Plan for Sustainable LivingImproved
AgricultureLast 50 yrs. Production kept up with population

growthHigh environmental costNeed to increase productivity in
same amount of landMulti-cropping - use land in all
seasonsConservation tillage - keep topsoil in place
*
*
4) Mitigate Climate ChangeEnhanced Greenhouse Effect:
additional warming produced by increased levels of gases that
absorb infrared radiationStabilizing climate
requires:Comprehensive energy planphasing out fossil
fuelsIncreasing energy conservationImproving energy efficiency
*
*

5) Design Sustainable Cities50% of world’s people live in cities
(3% in 1800) In US, 80% live in citiesUrban transportationBuild
city around people, not carsLess congestion, pollution, space for
parkingWater ResourcesRecycle waste-water for other uses
(watering)Water purification of sewage before release
*
*
What is the global extent of poverty?
What are two ecosystem services provided by natural resources
such as forests and biological diversity?
What is food insecurity?
How is stabilizing climate related to energy use?
What are two serious problems in urban environments?

Case Study
Loess Plateau in ChinaImportant resource for ChinaFertile
agricultural soilEasily eroded by wind and water when no
vegetation holds it in placeTurned to desert by deforestation and
overgrazing1994 - Loess Plateau Watershed
RehabilitationReforestationEducation about cases of
degradationRecovery of land and silting of Yellow River
*
Case Study
*
The Environmental
Challenges We Face
Chapter 1
A World in Crisis

Earth provides raw materials and energy for LifeEarth is approx
4.5 Billion years oldModern humans appeared in Africa 195,000
yrs agoHuman populations have grown and expanded in
rangeTechnology has allowed humans to live better (at least in
developed nations)
Humans are the most significant agent of environmental
changeOverpopulationOverconsumption of natural resources:
topsoil, water, airTransforming and destroying natural
environments Eradicating unique speciesHuman-induced climate
change
*
A World in Crisis
Human Impacts on the EnvironmentLearning Objectives:
Distinguish among highly developed countries, moderately
developed countries, and less developed countries.
Relate human population size to natural resources and resource
consumption.
Distinguish between people overpopulation and consumption
overpopulation.
Describe the three factors that are most important in
determining human impact on the environment.

*
OverpopulationEarth’s central environmental problemLinks all
other environmental problems togetherWorld’s population
continues to grow and has grown very fast1960: 3 billion
people1975: 4 billion1987: 5 billion2009: 6.8 billionPeople
consume food and water, use energy and raw materials and
produce wasteSeveral more billion people will be added in the
21st century, even if we are proactive about population growth
Human Impacts on the Environment
PovertyA condition in which people are unable to meet their
basic needs for food, clothing, shelter, education, or health.One
in four people lives in extreme poverty (less than $2/day): 3.3

billion peoplePoverty is associated with short life expectancy,
illiteracy, inadequate access to health services, safe water,
balanced nutrition
*
Population GrowthProjected 7.7–10.6 billion people depending
on fertility rateCurrent fertility rate is 2.6
children/womanFamily planning effortsWorld’s population may
stabilize by end of 21st centuryCan Earth support so many
people?We don’t knowQuality of life depends on being able to
produce enough food in a sustainable mannerWithout destroying
the biological communities that support life on our planet
Population Size Number of peoplePopulation Consumption Use
of materials and energyEconomic GrowthExpansion of the
output of a nation’s goods and servicesIntimately related
Gap between Rich and PoorHighly Developed Countries (Rich,
HDCs) Complex industrialized bases, low rates of population
growth, and high per person incomes18 % of the world’s

populationUS, Canada, Japan, most of Europe
Gap between Rich and PoorPoor Countries: 82% of world’s
populationModerately Developed (MDCs)Medium levels of
industrialization, lower per person incomes than highly
developed countries, few opportunities for education and health
careMexico, Turkey, South Africa, ThailandLess Developed
(LDCs)Low levels of industrialization, high population growth,
very high infant death rates, very low incomes, mostly
agriculture based, cheap unskilled laborBangladesh, Mali,
Ethiopia, Laos
Gap between Rich and Poor
Population, Resources, and the EnvironmentDeveloping
countriesRapid population growth is overwhelmingNatural
resource depletion for survival (soils, forests, water)Developed
countriesSlower population growthHigher rate of consumption

beyond what’s necessary for survival (TV, computers, jet skis)
Types of ResourcesNonrenewableLimited Supply: minerals,
fossil fuelsOnce they are gone, they are
goneRenewable/Potentially RenewableVirtually unlimited: solar
power, water, soil, forestsReplenished over short periods (days
to decades)Easy to overexplo
clean air
Resources and PopulationRapid population growth can cause
resources to be overexploitedCritical in developing
countriesEconomic growth tied to natural resource
exploitationChoice between short term and long termPoverty
drives natural resource exploitationMust use resources to
survive, which degrades them and shuts down future
opportunities for development
Population Size and Resource ConsumptionA country is

overpopulated if the demand on its resources results in damage
to the environment.
Can be overpopulated in 2 ways:People
OverpopulationConsumption is high because there are too many
people, even if individual consumption is lowConsumption
OverpopulationConsumption is high because each individual
consumes too much, even if total population is low
Population Size and Resource ConsumptionHighly developed
countries have less than 20% of the world’s population, but
consume:86% of aluminum76% of timber68% of energy61% of
meat42% of fresh waterAlso, produce 75% of waste and
pollution
Population Size and Resource ConsumptionEcological
FootprintsThe amount of land, fresh water, and ocean required
on a continuous basis to supply a person with food, wood,

energy, water, housing, clothing, transportation, and waste
disposal.Earth has 11.4 billion ha = 28.2 billion acres of
productive land and water11.4/6.8 billion people = 1.8 ha (4.3
acres)Currently, average ecological footprint is 2.7 ha
(6.7 acres)US footprint is 9.4 ha (23.3 acres) if everyone in the
world had the same, we would need 4 Earths!!!
Population, Consumption, and Environmental ImpactI = P x A x
TI: Environmental impactP: Population (number of people)A:
Affluence per person (amt of resources)T: Technology used to
get resourcesInterpret results with care!Ultimate goal: make
consumption sustainable

How do highly developed countries, moderately developed
countries, and less developed countries differ regarding
population growth and per person incomes?
How is human population growth related to natural resource
depletion and environmental degradation?
Sustainability and Earth’s Capacity to Support HumansLearning
Objectives:
Define environmental sustainability.
Identify human behaviors that threaten environmental
sustainability
*
Sustainability: Ability to meet current needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needsEnvironment will function indefinitelyBased on:Effects of
our actions on the environmentEarth’s resources are
finiteUnderstanding impacts of consumptionShared
responsibility for environmental sustainability
Sustainability and Earth’s Capacity to Support Humans

We are not currently living sustainably:Using nonrenewable
resources as if they were renewable (e.g., fossil fuels)Using
renewable resources faster than nature can replenish
themPolluting the environment beyond capacityUnchecked
population growth, without regard to Earth’s finite resources
and ability to deal with waste
Sustainability and Earth’s Capacity to Support Humans
Global Environmental Issues
Global warming Deforestation
Threatened Oceans Desertification

Polar Ice caps Ozone Depletion
Environmental stress factor
Sustainability and Earth’s Capacity to Support HumansIf we
continue to live unsustainably, Earth may not recoverWhat
changes are we willing to make?
Focus on Sustainability

What is environmental sustainability?
Which human behaviors threaten environmental sustainability?
Environmental ScienceLearning Objectives:
Define environmental science.
Outline the steps of the scientific method.
*
Environmental ScienceInterdisciplinary study of humanity’s
relationship with other organisms and the physical environment
combines information from many fields:biology, geology,
geography, chemistry, economics, agriculture, law, politics,
ethics, etc.Ecology is a basic toolAtmospheric
ScienceEnvironmental ChemistryGeosciences
Environmental ScienceGoalsEstablish general principles about
how the natural world functionsIdentifying, understanding, and
solving problems that we have createdNot just ‘doom and
gloom’ list of problemsFocus on solving problems

Environmental ScienceScience as a ProcessNot just a collection
of factsSystematic way of studying the natural worldRequires
collection of data throughObservation and experimentationData
must be analyzed and interpretedNot based on faith, emotion,
intuitionRequires repeatability and scrutinyNo absolute
certaintyRequires reevaluationOngoing process
Environmental Science
The Scientific MethodProcess that scientists use to answer
questions or solve problems
Recognize a question/problem
Develop a hypothesis (educated guess) to explain the problem
Design and perform an experiment to test the hypothesis
Analyze and interpret the data to reach a conclusion
Share knowledge with scientific community
The Scientific Method

Environmental ScienceThe best hypotheses make
predictionsPredictions provide a way to test hypothesesIf
experiment refutes hypothesis, hypothesis is rejectedIf
hypothesis is verified repeatedly, hypothesis is strongScience
progresses from uncertainty to less uncertaintyScience is self-
correcting even though it never ‘proves’ anything
Environmental ScienceExperiments test hypothesesVariable:
factor that influences a processTo test a hypothesis, two
experiments are carried out:Experimental Group: the chosen
variable is altered in a known wayControl Group: the chosen
variable is not alteredWe can ask: What is the difference (if
any) between the two groups?Any differences would be due to
the experimental variable
Environmental ScienceScientific TheoryAn integrated
explanation of many hypotheses, each supported by many
observations and experiments.Simplifies and clarifies our
understanding of the natural world.Solid ground of
scienceGenerally accepted as ‘true’, even though there is no
absolute truth in scienceContrast with general public’s use of
theory, as a guess, or hypithesis

Environmental ScienceScience is constantly evolvingAs new
evidence comes to light, conclusions may changeTherefore,
scientific conclusions are provisional, which doesn’t mean they
are invalid.E.g., smoking and cancer
What is environmental science? What are some of the
disciplines involved in environmental science?
What are the five steps of the scientific method? Why is each
important?
How We Handle Environmental ProblemsLearning Objectives:
List and briefly describe the five stages of solving
environmental problems.
*

How We Handle Environmental Problems
What are the five steps used to solve an environmental problem?
EnviroDiscoveryNIMBY = not in my backyardNIMTOO = not in
my term of officeExamples:People don’t want power plants,
landfills, incinerators nearbyPoliticians want to be reelected, so
they don’t support those decisions in their districts
EnviroDiscovery
Case Study
The New Orleans Disaster: Hurricane KatrinaStorm damage was
increased because of human alteration of the natural
landscape:Canals

to intrude and kill marsh vegetationLevees were built to stop
landSettlements were built on drained wetlandsCity was
subsiding due to lack of bedrock
Case Study
Environment in the NewsES 200
Student guideline:
I want you to do two different assignments both assignments
should be approximately two double-spaced pages in length. So
total of 4 pages, two different topics, two different files. I
provided the four chapters for this week these two assignment
should be related to the course topics for this week.
Professor guideline:
You will complete two Environment in the News log activities
per week for each of the four weeks. Each log entry must
describe an environmental event that has happened since June 1,
2015, is tied in some way to human effects on the environment,
and is related to the course topics covered in the textbook for
that week. A good log entry describes the event, explains why
the event caught the student’s interest, relates the event to
specific course content in the textbook, and is based on a strong
reference source. The event can be something that humans did
to the environment or something that the environment did to
humans (as long as humans had a role in creating the event); it

can also be release of new data or studies on topics related to
the impact of humans on the environment. Because
environmental science is a broad umbrella (see Chapter 1), it
includes the social sciences as well as the physical and
biological sciences; consequently, log entries can also include
social science topics related to human impact on the
environment. Sample data sources are provided on the course
Moodle site. Log entries should be approximately two double-
spaced pages in length.
Web Resources for Environment in the News Posts
Here are some web resources for your Environment in the News:
1. NASA News: http://www.nasa.gov/news/index.html
2. NOAA News: http://www.noaa.gov/newsarchive.html
3. American Geophysical Union
News: http://www.agu.org/news/press/
4. National Science Foundation News: http://nsf.gov/news/
5. National Geographic
Newswatch: http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/
6. Environmental News Network: http://www.enn.com/
7. United Nations Environment
Programme: http://www.unep.org/
8. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency: http://www2.epa.gov/newsroom
9. Grist: http://www.grist.org

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