Development of Geographical Thoughts and Explanation in Greek period

Prepared for
Mr. Md. Atiur Rahman
(Assistant Professor),
Department of Geography and Environmental Science,
Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur
Course code: GES 4101
Course Title: Geographical Thoughts and Explanation in
Geography

Group -
AName ID No. Registration No.
Md. Saddam Hossain 1011001 000001569
Nushrat Jahan 1011011 000001580
S. M. Zahid Hasan 1011023 000001591
Md. Sahidul Islam 1011036 000001604
Md. A. Raquib 1011045 000001613
Md. Rabiul Islam 1011054 000001622

 Aim and Objectives
 Introduction
 The concept of development and thought
 Greek age
 The Geographical achievements of Greeks
 The ancient classical Geography
 The roots of Greek scholarship
 Greek Geography
 Location of Greece
 Greek Scholar’s Contributions in Geography
 Findings
 Conclusion
 References

Aims and Objectives
• To know about the geographical knowledge in
different stages of Greek period.
• To know about their different development
branches.
• To find out the similarities and dissimilarities
between Greek Geography and Modern Geography
• To present the achievements and lackings of Greek
Geography

Data Source
Data
Collection
Book
Atlas
Internet
Journals
Organization
Newspaper
Data Presentation
Picture
Figure
Map

INTRODUCTION
The Greeks were pioneers in many branches of
knowledge. Describing the change of geographical
knowledge in different stages may face some problem.
To avoid the problems some approaches have been
risen to describe Geographical knowledge. The basis of
their knowledge was observation, measurement,
generalization process, philosophical and
comprehensiveness of mind were able to make
tremendous advancement in the knowledge of
Geography. Their period is known as the ‘Golden age of
Greece’. Greek philosophers and scientist were also
interested in learning about spatial nature of human and
physical features found on the Earth.

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT AND
THOUGHT
Development is the process of developing or being developed.
Develpoment is an event constituting a new stage in a changing
situation. By hard working and long term efforts geography reach
the present condition.
Factors of Development:
Observation of the people
Encouragement (social, political, financial)
Travelling
Trade and Commerce
Exploration
In geography, Thoughts are the agglomeration of physical, cultural
and biological aspects of the earth and values and beliefs of
different objectives. Explanation is the methodological description
of these thoughts.

GREEK AGE
(800 BC – 150 BC)
.
Greek Age
Ancient Greek Age
(800 BC - 500 BC)
Late Greek Age
(500 Bc – 300 BC)
Greek-Roman Age
(300 BC – 150 AD)

THE GEOGRAPHICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF
GREEKS
 Greeks discovered that, the earth is round.
 Greeks first drew the map of ocean.
 Eratosthenes first measure the
circumference of the earth.
 Greeks invented the pole star.
 Greeks created Geography as subject.
 Greeks invented latitude, longitude and
projection of the earth.

THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY
 Geography as a field of learning in the western world had
it’s beginning of ancient Greece.
 It is clear that much attention was given to geographical
study in ancient China, and Chinese explorers did as much
do “discover” Europe as the Europeans did to reach the
“Far East". But Chinese scholarship did not form a major
part of the stream of western thought.
 The Greeks like all innovative people were great borrowers
from the much older civilizations.
 Many of the basic procedures of scholarship still in use
were first developed by the Greeks.

THE ROOTS OF GREEK SCHOLARSHIP
 The Greeks were indebted to the worlds earliest scholars in many
ways.Egypt has been called the cradle of science because of the very
early development of the methods of observation, measurement and
generalization in that country. Their contribution:
 Developed ways to measure land areas.
 North-south line
 The art of writing
 (a + b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2)
 Both the Egyptian and Sumerians believed that there were 360 days in
a year.
 The Sumerians divided the year into twelve month. They also divided
the circle of the zodiac into 360 parts.
 The Babylonians and Assyrians developed the ideas- a body of
concepts that we call Astrology.
 The Phoenicians, too, developed the world’s first phonetic alphabet.

GREEK GEOGRAPHY
 The Greeks were pioneers in many branches of
knowledge.Their period is known as the “Golden
Age of Greece”.Between the 5th and 3rd century
B.C.,the Greek colonies were established in
different parts of the Mediterranean sea and
Euxine.
 Euxine became the main center of geographical
enquiry.
 The early expeditionof Hanno.
 The establishment of famous library Museum at
Alexandria.

LOCATION OF GREECE
 The location of Greece, situated on
both sides of Aegean Sea, was also
conducive to geographical study.
The great diversity in it’s
topography and physical features
provided great impetus to the
growth and development of
geography such as-
 Hilly and undulating country
 Rivers are mainly torrents
 Numerous straits
 Limestone topography of the
mainland
These phenomena, the Greek scholars
tried to study and explain.
Fig : Map of Greece

HOMER
Idealized portrayal of Homer dating
to the Hellenistic period. British
Museum.
Born : Melesigenes, as told
in Pseudo-Herodotus
c. 8th century BC,
according to
Herodotus, Smyrna
Died : Ios Island
Residence : Smyrna, Cyme
(Aeolis), Chios
Nationality : Greek
Notable work : Iliad, Odyssey,
Homeric Hymns,
Epic Cycle, other
Homerica
Religion : Greek polytheism
Era : Geometric Period
Region : Shores and islands of
the Aegean Sea

 The earth to be a place of circular form,
surrounded on all sides by ocean river. The
sky (Vault of Heaven), which he conceived as
a solid concave surface, resting on tall pillars.
 The sun rose out from ocean stream and
again sank into the same way. Stars are also
bathing everyday in the Ocean like sun.
 He described the name ‘Europe’ was applied
to the shore of the Aegean Sea towards the
setting sun and ‘Asia’ was applied to the
shore towards the rising sun.
 Winds are coming from four directions
• Bores: North wind, Strong and cool with clear
skies;
• Euras: East wind, warm and gentle;
• Notus: south wind, on the from of advanced
storm;
• Zephyrus: West wind, dreaded, Balmy with
gale force
HOMER
Contribution In Geography
Fig: Earth in Homer’s
Thought

ANAXIMANDER
Relief representing Anaximander.
This is the only existing image of
Anaximander from the ancient world.
Born : c. 610 BC
Died : c. 546 BC
Residence : Miletus, Lonia
(Turkey)
Nationality : Greek
Notable Ideas : The apeiron is the
arche
Evolutionary view of
living things Earth floats
unsupported
Mechanical model of
the sky Water of rain from
evaporation
Main Interest : Metaphysics,
Astronomy, Geometry,
Geography.

Cosmology
 Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water
and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through
their interactions.
 The Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything.
Stars are closer to Earth and then Moon and Then Sun. From this model he gave
the explanation on eclipse.
ANAXIMANDER
Fig: Map of Anaximander's universe
Illustration of Anaximander's models of the universe.
On the left, daytime in summer; on the right, nighttime

Meteorology
 Anaximander attributed some meteorological
phenomena, such as thunder and lightning.
 Rain as a product of the humidity pumped up
from Earth by the sun.
Cartography
 Anaximander prepared a world map to scale. In
scale. In this map Greek has been shown in the
the center of the world and surrounded by the
the Ocean river.
Geometry
 Gnomon is a pole set vertically above a flat
surface which the varying position of the sun
sun could be measured by the length and
direction of the shadow cast by the vertical pole.
pole. With the help of Gnomon, noon could be
be established by noting when shadow was the
the shortest; The noon shadow provided the
ANAXIMANDER
Fig: Anaximander's world map

HIPPARCHUS
Fig:
Hipparchus
Born : c. 190 BC
Nicaea,
Kingdom of
Bithynia
Died : c. 120 BC
Rhodes, Roman
Republic
Occupation : Astronomer
Mathematician
Geographer
Nationality : Greek

 He discovered the precession of the equinoxes.
 He made the star catalogue, listed 850 stars.
 Divided the circle into 360 degree based on Assyrian arithmetic.
 Equator as a great circle which divided the earth in to two equal parts.
 ‘Astrolabe’ The instrument helps to determine Latitude and Longitude.
 The conversion of three dimensional sphere to two dimensional plane.
 Orthographic and Stereographic, these projections are designed by him.
 Orbit and Motion of the sun and moon
 Distance of Sun and Moon from the Earth
HIPPARCHUS
Fig: Geometric construction used by Hipparchus in his determination of the distances
to the sun and moon.

HERODOTUS
Fig: A Roman copy of a Greek bust of
Herodotus
Born : c. 485 BC
Halicarnassus, Caria,
Asia Minor
Died : c. 425 BC
Thurii, Calabria or Pella,
Macedon
Occupation : Historian
Ethnicity : Greek
Notable work : The Historian

HERODOTUS
 He gave description of then
existing tribes and their life
style.
 The meridian was drawn in the
world map.
 Divided the Land mass of the
earth into three continent :
Asia, Europe and Libya (Africa).
 Divided Libya (Africa) into
three latitudinal zones.
 Mediterranean coast from
Atlas mountain to delta of
Nile.
 Area of Wild beast (South)
 True Sahara Desert
Fig: ancient map based on
Herodotus

ERATOSTHENES
Fig: Eratosthenes
Born : c. 276 BC
Cyrene
Died : c. 194 BC
Alexandria
Occupation : Scholar,
Librarian,
Poet,
Inventor
Ethnicity : Greek

 Described and Mapped the known world and dividing the Earth in to five
climatic zone : two freezing zone around the pole, two temperate zone
and a equatorial zone.
 Placed grids of overlapping lines over the surface of the earth.
ERATOSTHENES
Fig: The World according to

 He wrote three books on Geography.
• The first book was something of
an introduction and gave a review
of his predecessors, recognizing
their contributions that he
compiled in the library.
• Second Book “A text on
Mathematical Geography”. Here
he described about the discover of
the circumference of the earth.
• Third book “the Geography”
contains political geography.
 calculated the Sun's diameter about 27
times that of the Earth
 Founder of ‘Leap Year’
 Measured the Circumference of the
Earth.
ERATOSTHENES

Plato is one of the greatest Greek philosophers. He was student of Socrates.
His concept till now are taught in universities worldwide.
Contribution:
 In Astronomical Geography:
 Explanation of solar system as system (circle shape).
 Explanation Size, shape of sun, moon, and earth (round, circular)
 Concept of revolution of sun, moon, and planets (in circular way)
 Concept about position of earth (at centre of solar system).
PLATO (C. 427 BC – 347 BC)

 In mathematical geography:
Analyzing physical science by mathematical way.
Concept of deduction (pollution).
Books:
Pheadu.
Philebus.
Timaeus.
Republica( Studied worldwide till now).
PLATO (C. 427 BC – 347 BC)

 In Mathematical Geography:
Concept of area measurement.
Existence of size of every matter (expressed by
numerically).
 Concept about earth size.
 Concept of existence of planets.
where
a2 + b2 = c2
Figure :Area measurement method of Pythagorus
Source: http:/ /en. Wikipedia.Pythagorus contribution in
Greek geography
Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher who made a great many contributions to the history
of mathematics, science, astronomy and music theory. He is perhaps best known for his
contribution to mathematics however the famed Pythagoras theorem.
Contribution:
PYTHAGORAS(C. 570 BC – 495 BC)

Activities :
• Established an organization (Pythagorean).
• Concept of anti-earth.
• Concept the source of energy.
In 529 BC, he migrated to Italy due to oppression in his own country. Later on, the
 Concepts about the movements of heavenly bodies (circular way).
 Concept of the position of earth (center of solar system).
 Concept of revolution of Sun and moon (round the earth).
Contribution:
PYTHAGORAS(C. 570 BC – 495 BC)

Contribution:
Explanation of solar
system by molecule
theory.
Produce world map.
Ocean
Ocean
Figure: World map produced by Democritus
Source: http:/ /en. Wikipedia.Democritus contribution in
Greek geography
Democritus was a scholar of the Greek Golden Age who was born in approximately 460 BC,
twenty years after the Battle of Salamis, in the city of Abdera. Democritus is considered by
some to be the father of science because he and his mentor Leucippus were both materialists.
DEMOCRITUS

 Concept of anti-earth.
 Identified the central fire.
 Systematized the number theory of
Pythagoras.
 Stressed the importance of numerical
groupings and the divine properties of
number.
 Conceived number ‘one’ as ‘the first
principle of all things’.
Figure: Earth moves round a central fire
Source: http://en.Wikipedia.cosmogenic concept by Philalaus
Contribution:
Philolaus was a Greek Pythagorean and Presocratic philosopher. He argued that at the
foundation of everything is the part played by the limiting and limitless, which combine
together in a harmony. He is also credited with originating the theory that the earth was
not the center of the universe.
PHILOLAUS (500 BC – 440 BC)

 Rotation of earth on its own axis.
 Revolution of moon round the earth. (no
doubt.
 Concept of solar system as pure.
 Irregular revolution of mercury and Venus.
 Revolution of Jupiter, Mars, Saturn around
earth.
Figure: Rotation of earth on its own axis.
Source: http: //en.Wikipedia.rotation of earth
concept by Heraclaids
Contribution:
Heraclides Ponticus (Ancient Greek) also known as Herakleides and Heraklides of Pontus, was a
Greek philosopher and astronomer who lived and died at Heraclea Pontica, now Karadeniz Eregli,
Turkey.He is best remembered for proposing that the earth rotates on its axis, from west to east, once
every 24 hours. He is also frequently hailed as the originator of the heliocentric theory, although this is
doubted.
HERACLIDES (388 BC – 315 BC)

Contribution:
 Attempted to measure distance to moon and
sun.
 Used geometry to solve scientific problem.
 Discovered the sun clock and measuring
instrument.
 Rotation and revolution of Planets (round
the sun).
 Proposed heliocentric model of solar
system.
Figure: Distance among sun,moon and earth.
Source: http: //en.Wikipedia. Distance
measurement among sun, moon and earth by
Aristrarcus
Aristarchus of Samos was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who
presented the first known model that placed the Sun at the center of the known
universe with the Earth revolving around it (see Solar system).
ARISTARCHUS (310 BC – 230BC)

Figure: Heliocentric model of solar system
Figure: measuring distance of sun, moon and earth by Aristrarcus
Figure: Heliocentric model of solar system
Source: http: //en.wikipedia. Astro-Geographic concept by Aristrarcus
ARISTARCHUS (310 BC – 230BC)

Posidonius
Par tial scope of w r itings
 He attempted to create a unified system for understanding the human intellect and the universe
which would provide an explanation of and a guide for human behavior.
Philosophy
 His philosophical grand vision was that the universe itself was similarly interconnected, as if an
organism, through cosmic "sympathy", in all respects from the development of the physical
world to the history of humanity.
 Posidonius taught that the human soul had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires for
power, possessions, etc.) and desiderative (desires for sex and food). Ethics was the problem of
how to deal with these passions and restore reason as the dominant faculty.
Physics
 In physics, Posidonius advocated a theory of cosmic "sympathy", the organic interrelation of all
appearances in the world, from the sky to the earth, as part of a rational design uniting
humanity and all things in the universe.
A str onomy
 Posidonius advanced the theory that the Sun emanated a vital force which permeated the
world.
 He attempted to measure the distance and size of the Sun and reached a figure larger and more
accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers.

Eudoxus (c. 400 B.C.) is the greatest of the ancient mathematicians,
surpassed only by Archimedes. Biographical highlights:
 Eudoxus was born in Cnidos, on the Black Sea.
 He studied mathematics with Archytus in Tarentum.
 He studied medicine with Philistium on Sicily.
 At 23 years he went to Plato's academy in Athens to study philosophy and rhetoric.
 Some time later he went to Egypt to learn astronomy at Helopolis.
 He established a school at Cyzicus on the sea of Marmora and had many pupils.
 In 365 B. C. he returned to Athens with his pupils. He became a colleague of Plato.
 At the age of 53 he died in Cnidos.
Eudoxus (c. 400 B.C.)

Eudoxus was the most renown astronomer and mathematician of his day. In
astronomy devised an ingenious planetary system based on spheres.
 The spherical earth is at rest at the center.
 Around this center, 27 concentric spheres rotate.
 The exterior one caries the fixed stars
 The others account for the sun, moon, and five planets.
 Each planet requires four spheres, the sun and moon, three each.
Eudoxus 's contributions to mathematics include:
 A theory of proportion; this allowed the study of irrationals (incommensurables).
 The concept of magnitude, as not a number but stood for such as line segments,
angles, areas, etc., and which could vary continuously. Magnitudes were opposed
to numbers, which could change discontinuously. This avoided giving numerical
values to lengths, areas, etc. Consequently great advances in geometry were
made.
 The method of exhaustion.
 Establishing rigorous methods for finding areas and volumes of curvilinear figures
(e.g. cones and spheres).
 A profound influence in the establishment of deductive organization of proof on
the basis of explicit axioms.

ARISTOTLE
Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, making
contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany,
ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student
of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. He was more empirically-
minded than Plato or Socrates and is famous for rejecting Plato's theory of
forms.
Contribution on different field:
Works on natural history
History of Animals (physical/mental qualities, habits)
On the parts of Animals
On the Movement of Animals
On the Progression of Animals
On the Generation of Animals
Physical works
Physics (explains change, motion, void, time)
On the Heavens (structure of heaven, earth, elements)
On Generation (through combining material constituents)
Meteorologics (origin of comets, weather, disasters)
Philosophical works
Metaphysics (substance, cause, form, potentiality)
Nicomachean Ethics (soul, happiness, virtue, friendship)
Eudemain Ethics
Magna Moralia
Politics (best states, utopias, constitutions, revolutions)
Poetics (tragedy, epic poetry)

PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE
Motion is the passage of matter into form, and it is of four kinds:
(1) motion which affects the substance of a thing, particularly its beginning and its ending;
(2) motion which brings about changes in quality;
(3) motion which brings about changes in quantity, by increasing it and decreasing it; and
(4) motion which brings about locomotion, or change of place. Of these the last is the most
fundamental and important.
Aristotle rejects the definition of space as the void. Empty space is an impossibility. Hence, too, he
disagrees with the view of Plato and the Pythagoreans that the elements are composed of
geometrical figures. Space is defined as the limit of the surrounding body towards what is
surrounded. Time is defined as the measure of motion in regard to what is earlier and later. It thus
depends for its existence upon motion. If there where no change in the universe, there would be no
time. Since it is the measuring or counting of motion, it also depends for its existence on a counting
mind. If there were no mind to count, there could be no time. As to the infinite divisibility of space
and time, and the paradoxes proposed by Zeno, Aristotle argues that space and time are potentially
divisible ad infinitum, but are not actually so divided.

HECATAEUS OF MILETUS
Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC), son of
Hagesandrus, was an early Greek historian of a wealthy
family. He flourished during the time of the Persian
invasion. Hecataeus is the first known Greek historian and
was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic
people.
Works
Some have credited Hecataeus with a work entitled Periodos ges,
"Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey", written in two books.
One, on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean,
describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia.
The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century AD survives.
Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known
world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the
descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon
Anaximander’s map of the earth, which he corrected and
enlarged.
The other known work of Hecataeus was regarded as the
Γενεαλογίαι (Genealogiai) or the Ἱστορία (Historia), a rationally
systematized account of the traditions and the myths of the
Greeks, a break with the epic myth-making tradition, which
survives in a few fragments, just enough to show what we are

HIPPOCRATES
Hippocrates of Kos (Greek: Hippokrátēs; c. 460 – c. 370 BC)
was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles (Classical
Greece), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures
in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "Father of
Western Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to
the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine.
Work:
Hippocratic theory on disease: Hippocrates is credited with
being the first person to believe that diseases were caused
naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Ancient Greek
schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on
how to deal with disease.
Direct contributions to medicine: Hippocrates and his followers
were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.
He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the
fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease,
lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason,
clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic
fingers“
He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and

ALEXANDERTHE GREAT
Alexander III of Macedon commonly known as Alexander the Great was a
King of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the
Argead dynasty, a famous ancient Greek royal house. Born in Pella in 356
BC, Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne at the age of
twenty. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most
successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by
the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. Alexander's legacy includes the
cultural diffusion his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He
founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in
Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of
Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of
which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-
15th century and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern
Anatolia until the 1920s.

Contributions: The Macedonian king, when he conquered the known parts of the world had spread the Greek
civilization throughout the world. The Greek culture blended with the cultures of other nations which is
known as Hellenism. One common currency and Greek language untied the whole territories. Alexander
was responsible for the opening up of trade relations between the east and west. He had established
many cities on the way to India and these cities were established near the trade routes. The establishment
of even the Roman Empire was based on the conquests of Alexander. The conquest of Alexander had
sparked an inspiration among the people to study science. There were contributions in the field of
mathematics, science, geography, philosophy, and astronomy.
Main towns founded by Alexander
• Alexandria, Egypt
• Alexandria Asiana, Iran
• Alexandria in Ariana, Afghanistan
• Alexandria of the Caucasus, Afghanistan
• Alexandria on the Oxus, Afghanistan
• Alexandria of the Arachosians, Afghanistan
• Alexandria on the Indus, or Alexandria Bucephalous, Pakistan
• Alexandria Eschate, "The furthest," Tajikistan
• Iskenderun (Alexandretta), Turkey
• Kandahar (Alexandropolis), Afghanistan

STRABO
Strabo (/ˈstreɪboʊ/ Greek Στράβων Strabōn; 64/63 BC – c.
AD 24), was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian.
Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus
(modern Amasya, Turkey), a city that he said was situated the
approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea.
Contribution:
Education: Strabo studied under several prominent teachers
of various specialties throughout his early life at different
stops along his Mediterranean travels. Strabo was an admirer
of Homer's poetry, perhaps a consequence of his time spent
in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21 Strabo
moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the
Peripatetic Xenarchus, a highly respected tutor in Augustus's
court. Despite Xenarchus's Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later
gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations.

Geographica: Strabo is most famous for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which
presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the
world known to his era. Although the Geographica was rarely utilized in its
contemporary antiquity, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine
Empire. It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued
around 1469. Strabo is pro-Roman politically, but culturally he reserves primacy to
Greece "... pro-Roman throughout the Geography. But while he acknowledges and
even praises Roman ascendancy in the political and military sphere, he also makes a
significant effort to establish Greek primacy over Rome in other contexts.“
Geology: Strabo... enters largely, in the Second Book of his Geography, into the
opinions of Eratosthenes and other Greeks on one of the most difficult problems in
geology, viz., by what causes marine shells came to be plentifully buried in the earth
at such great elevations and distances from the sea.
Strabo rejects this theory as insufficient to
account for all the phenomena, and he proposes
one of his own, the profoundness of which
modern geologists are only beginning to
appreciate. 'It is not,' he says, 'because the lands
covered by seas were originally at different
altitudes, that the waters have risen, or subsided,
or receded from some parts and inundated
others.But the reason is, that the same land is
sometimes raised up and sometimes depressed,
and the sea also is simultaneously raised and

The very first written definition/discussion of volcanism (Effusive eruption) observed at
Katakekaumenē (modern Kula, Western Turkey) until Pliny the Younger witnessed to the eruption
of Vesuvius on 24 August 79 AD in Pompeii: Karadivlit Scoria Cone and AA type basaltic fissure lava
flow in Katakekaumenē (modern-day Kul, Turkey).
…There are no trees here, but only the vineyards where they produce the Katakekaumene wines
which are by no means inferior from any of the wines famous for their quality. The soil is covered
with ashes, and black in color as if the mountainous and rocky country was made up of fires. Some
assume that these ashes were the result of thunderbolts and sub‐ terranean explosions, and do
not doubt that the legendary story of Typhon takes place in this region. Ksanthos adds that the
king of this region was a man called Arimus. However, it is not reasonable to accept that the whole
country was burned down at a time as a result of such an event rather than as a result of a fire
bursting from underground whose source has now died out. Three pits are called “Physas” and
separated by forty stadia from each other. Above these pits, there are hills formed by the hot
masses burst out from the ground as estimated by a logical reasoning. Such type of soil is very
convenient for viniculture, just like the Katanasoil which is covered with ashes and where the best
wines are still produced abundantly. Some writers concluded by looking at these places that there
is a good reason for calling Dionysus by the name (“Phrygenes”)

MEGASTHENES
Megasthenes ( ca. 350 – 290 BC) was a Greek
ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period, author of
the work Indika.He was born in Asi Minor (modern-day Turkey)
and became an ambassador of Seleucus I of the Seleucid
dynasty possibly to Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra India.
However the exact date of his embassy is uncertain. Scholars
place it before 298 BC, the date of Chandragupta's death.
Travel: Arrian explains that Megasthenes lived in Arachosia,
with the satrap Sibyrtius, from where he visited India:
"Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and
often speaks of his visiting Sandracottus, the king of the
Indians." Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri
We have more definite information regarding the parts of India
Megasthenes visited. He entered the subcontinent through the
district of the Pentapotamia (modern day Punjab region,
providing a full account of the rivers found there (thought to be
the five affluents of the Indus that form the Punjab region), and
proceeded from there by the royal road to Pataliputra. There
are accounts of Megasthenes having visited Mathura (Muttra),
in Bihar, but he appears not to have visited any other parts of
India.
Indica: His Indica served as an important source for many
later writers such as Strabo and Arrian. He describes such
features as the Himalayas and the island of Sri Lanka. He also
describes a caste system different from the one that exists
today, which shows that the caste system may to some extent

 Idea about distance of area.
 Conception about solar system.
 Limitation of Technology.
 Lack of instruments.
 Limitation of communication and transportation system.
 Lack of Locational Knowledge .
 Lack of prominent structural education system.
Findings

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of
Geography that was more than mere map making or
Cartography. They borrowed many of the concepts of
Astronomy, Geometry and Mathematics from the Egyptians,
Chaldeans and Assyrians. The Greeks possessed philosophical
and scientific aptitude, versatility of intellect, inquisitive nature
and comprehensiveness of mind.
Conclusion

Development of Geographical Thoughts and Explanation in Greek period

Development of Geographical Thoughts and Explanation in Greek period

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