A brief presentation on "Scientific paper writing". Useful for Graduates and Postgraduates.

1. SCIENTIFIC
PAPER
WRITING
Presentedby:
SHALINI BISHT

2. CONTENT
1. Need For Research And Paper Writing
2. Evolution Of Research Paper: From Completion Of Research To Writing A Research
Paper
3. Selecting An Appropriate Title For Research Paper
4. Writing An Effective Abstract
5. Writing An Introduction Of A Research Article
6. Writing The “Materials And Methods” Section
7. Detailing The Findings: Result Section
8. Statistical tests
9. How To Write Discussion Section Of A Scientific Paper ?
10. Writing An Effective Conclusion
11. Citing & Referencing: Why & How To Do It ?
12. Selecting Keywords And Running Title
13. Authorship And Acknowledgements
14. Plagiarism

3. What is research??
Systematic Inquiry And Study Of Objects Or Things In
Order To Establish Facts Or Derive New Conclusions.
Neil Armstrong: “Research Is Creating New Knowledge”
Research Attributes:
– Not Only Search Or Khoj But Is A Systematic Inquiry
– Purposive
– Standardized And Outlined Methodologys

4. Why to do research ??
• Advancement of knowledge
• Helps to develop a scientific attitude, develop deductive
reasoning and communication skills.
• Secure research grants and gain prestige too.
• Publishing research in journals is a way to share the
information, disseminate it among the scientific community
and at times earn promotions or register patents.
• Critical analysis is also performed once the paper is sent for
publication in peer reviewed journals & it helps improve the
research paper.

5. RESEARCH PAPER & ITS TYPES
• It organizes one’s ideas in a linear, comprehensive, understandable
format, using evidence to support one’s own claim and to discuss
contradicting studies too.
• The evaluation & analysis of information should be balanced,
accurate and fair.
• Types of research paper:
– Editorial
– Original articles
– Review articles
– Case reports
– Letter to editors
– Image/quiz
– Book reviews

6. EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH PAPER: FROM
COMPLETION OF RESEARCH TO WRITING A
RESEARCH PAPER

7. Pre-writing analysis of data
• Completed research needs to be analyzed for
logical conclusions
• Statistical analysis needs to be performed
• Outcome variable needs to be determined
accordingly and compared using appropriate
statistical tests.

8. Pre writing deduction of conclusions
• Once the outcome variables are available, the
logical conclusions are to be deduced and
written.
• The conclusion will highlight some important
points, which may require some more data to
be analyzed, to see an association or a
correlation.
• This will then be added to the already drawn
conclusion.

9. Pre-writing review of literature
• Thorough review of literature is to be done
while the study protocol is written &
conceptualized.
• Important points to be noted by the author.
• This will place the study in right perspective
and at times saves the embarrassment of
editor’s comment of ‘recent studies not cited’

10. Pre-writing journal selection
• Once the conclusion and review of literature is
complete, the next step is to start writing a
paper.
• One should have a clear idea of what one is
aiming at by writing a paper.
• Ideally, the paper should be published to
maximize the visibility and readership of the
paper thus published.

11. Journal selection
• The target audience of the paper
• Journal scope
• Acceptance rate of a journal
• Average time to the first decision of a journal
• Average time from acceptance to publication
period of the journal
• Pattern of writing a paper
• Refer to recent issues of the journal
• Archival/online repository
• Special points

12. Writing a research paper: steps in brief

13. Section name Purpose of section
Title Tells the reader what the paper is about and
used for indexing
Author & affiliation The writers of the paper, who take responsibility
of the work
Abstract Summary of the paper
Keywords Words that describe the paper, used for indexing
Introduction Background information on the paper, aim of the
study
Materials & methods Techniques adopted in performing the research,
how it was done ?
Results The findings of the research
Discussion Comparing the findings with the other worker’s
findings & rationalizing them
Conclusion Salient findings of the research likely to have
implication
Acknowledgements Refers to persons who contributed for the
research paper, but do not fulfill the criteria for
authorship
References Citing the sources of other’s works, lends
credibility and authenticity

14. SELECTING AN APPROPRIATE TITLE FOR
RESEARCH PAPER

15. • Single most & foremost important section
• Title is read by all
• Characteristics of title:
– Complete in itself
– Accurate
– Specific
– Concise
– Informative
– Representative
– Unambiguous
– Brings the salient features of the study

16. SIMPLE GUIDE TO WRITE AN APPROPRIATE
TITLE
Write the following point about the study in short:
What is the paper about?
What is the study design?
Which population is studied?
What is the conclusion?
Find out some important words in these phrases (similar to keywords
of the paper)
Make a sentence out of these important words
Remove the unnecessary words
Reframe the sentence to a meaningful title

17. Example
• Step 1: About The Study: Lung Functions Have Been
Tested In Outpatient Setting On Malnourished
Children Of Age Group 10-15 Years, A Cross Sectional
Study.
• Step 2: Identifying Keywords: Lung Functions,
Outpatient Setting, Malnourished Children, Age
Group 10-15 Years, Cross Sectional Study.
• Step 3: Making A Sentence: Study Of Lung Function In
Malnourished Children Aged 0-15 Years In An
Outpatient Setting By A Cross Sectional Study.
• Steps 4 & 5: Removing Unnecessary Words And
Framing The Title: “Lung Function In Malnourished
Children Aged 10-15 Years: Outpatient Setting, Cross
Sectional Study”

18. Points to be avoided while writing a title
Avoid very short or too long titles
Omit unnecessary words such as effect of, case of, comparison ,
study of etc
Avoid titles framed as questions.
Results should not be apparent in title, although the title should
convey about the study
Avoid use of abbreviations in the title.
Avoid complex words or phrases
Avoid jargons, acronyms and subtitles
Avoid sensationalism

19. WRITING AN EFFECTIVE ABSTRACT

20. • The editor -in –chief of the prestigious science
journal “Nature” , Sir Philip Campbell summed up
the true importance of abstract “winning over a
skeptical editor”, reader or reviewer should be
the ultimate goal of abstract.
• Condensed version of manuscript
• It is the most read part of the article as it is visible
and freely available online
• Standard academic journals typically ask for a
200-300 words structured abstract in IMRaD
format as per guideline of International
Committee of Medical Journal Editor’s (ICMJE).

21. SALIENT FEATURES OF ABSTRACT WRITING
Construct abstract from keyboards from the main text
Use important keywords at the beginning of the title
Use past tense and telegraphic language
Avoid abbreviations and passive voice
State the objective (primary and secondary) at starting of abstract
Results section should clearly and honestly answer the research questions
Give sample size if result is in the percentages
Present significance value (p value) with 95% confidence interval
Check if the abstract covered the four “whats”:
• Introduction: what is background knowledge and why did we start?
• Method: what did you do?
• Result: what did you find?
• Discussion: what does it mean ?
Abstract should be standalone
Should not contain references or citations
Four C’s should be taken care of:
• Complete: it covers the major part of the manuscript
• Concise: it contains no excess of words or information
• Clear: it is readable & well organized
• Cohesive: it flows smoothly between parts

22. WRITING AN INTRODUCTION OF A RESEARCH
ARTICLE

23. • The crux of this section is to provide the
justification as to why the research work
was performed since it indicates what
knowledge gap the research paper intends
to fill.
• The introduction section places the work
in a theoretical context, and enables the
reader to understand and appreciate the
objectives of the research.

24. Parts to be covered in introduction section
1. What we know ?
• Existing knowledge about the topic of
research. Everything should be
mentioned in past tense.
• Thus, 1st paragraph of the introduction
is the short summary of the current
knowledge of the research question.

25. 2. what we do not know?
• Briefly discuss the literature review along with
the results obtained from the past research
work and also covers the lacunae in the work
already been done.
• Thus 2nd paragraph summarizes what others
have done in this field, limitations and the
questions that needs to be answered.

26. 3. Why we did this study?
• This section tries to covers what knowledge
gap does the research paper attempts at
fulfilling by laying out the objectives in brief.

27. EXAMPLE
 Elevated interleukin levels are a poor prognostic
marker in diabetic foot.
COMMON ERRORS
• Making introduction too lengthy
• Many authors enlist most of their citations in the
introduction section leaving very few references for
the discussion section.

28. WRITING THE “MATERIALS AND METHODS”
SECTION

29. • Also known as “subjects and methods”,
“patients and methods”, “methodology” or
simply “methods”
• 4 goals to achieve:
1. Documentation of every step of data collection
and procedures for future reference.
2. Replicability for a competent researcher to
repeat the study if required
3. Credibility of the study in the eyes of the
reviewers and readers.
4. Judgment of the validity of the result

30. Structuring of materials & methods
section
• Participants
• Materials
• Procedures
• Study duration, sample size, approval of the
ethical committee, informed consent and the
study design should be provided in the
beginning of the section

31. What to avoid in writing “materials and methods “section
• Do not capitalize the names of chemicals.
• Do not use colloquialisms to avoid alterations in the
meaning.
• Do not inappropriately italicize, subscript or
superscript when writing chemical name or
formulae.
• Do not use wrong abbreviations.
• Do not use wrong words when trying to describe
certain actions.
• Do not include personal anecdotes, highlight only
the report facts.
• Do not use flourishing, heavily worded or irrelevant
sentences to avoid absence of clarity in the message
conveyed

32. DETAILING THE FINDINGS: RESULT SECTION

33. • Results are a key part of any research
paper because they are the
representation of the aims and objectives
of the research, discussion is built on it as
it mentions about the relevance of results
particularly in light of similar research in
the field, and also it forms the very basis
of conclusions drawn.

34. Detailing the result
• Researchers are expected to follow the
guidelines in describing the results where
ever applicable eg., STROBE
(Strengthening the Reporting of
Observational studies in Epidemiology)
and CONSORT ( Consolidated Standards of
Reporting Trials) statements provides
details of information to be included in
reporting the observational studies and
randomized trails respectively.

35. Position of result in the paper
Introduction Methodology RESULTS Discussion
WHAT TO REPORT?
• All relevant findings
accurately &
appropriately
HOW TO REPORT?
• Follow definite
chronology
• Use text and
illustrations

36. What to report?
• All relevant findings
• Main focus: on the research question findings
followed by secondary observations.
• Specific mention: positive & negative findings as
well as expected & unexpected outcomes.
• Negative findings are as important as the positive
ones.

37. • Result should be described in absolute numbers
supplemented with percentages, proportions and
statistical significance for easy interpretation by the
reader.
• P-value should be mentioned in reference to the
specific statistical test applied in absolute values and
NOT JUST MERELY P<0.05 (merely mentioning the level
of significance actually has “NO SIGNIFICANCE” in
scientific literature.
• There should be no falsification or fabrication of data
and its reporting is an unpardonable waste of scientific
resources

38. How to report ?
1. Order/sequence of presentation
– No such written rule
– Preferably it depends upon the study type,
objectives, reader audience etc.
– Results can be presented in the chronological order
or primary followed by secondary observations.
– Demographic details of the participants are
described in the beginning
– Presenting results in the logical sequence
generate the interest of the reader in the study

39. Style of presentation
• Text, figures, graphs and tables.
• The phrase A picture is worth a thousand words
is very apt when it comes to effective
presentation of the research findings.
• Illustrations are meant to complement the text
and not duplicate it.
• Generally, tables are preferred over graphs when
stress is on absolute numbers & percentages,
while graphs are preferred for comparative
representation of the data, to show relation
between the variables, variations and trends.

40. DO’S & DON’TS IN DETAILING THE STUDY FINDINGS
• Result should be accurate & free of error. Check &
recheck the numerical values.
• Do not interpret the findings or showcase the
relevance of results. It is meant just to specify
what was found in the research.
• Avoid use of phrases like some, few, most, many
etc. results should be simple, clear and concise for
easy understanding.
• Refrain from writing an overview of research in
the opening statement of result section as these
are the part of materials & methods section.

41. • Uniformity in presentation of result such as font
size, decimal places, alignment, units etc.
• Each illustration should be clear & legible and
the title should be self explanatory .
• Flashy & unnecessary use of illustrations should
be discouraged.
• Follow journal guidelines for any restriction on
number of words/tables/figures and plan
accordingly.

42. STATISTICAL TESTS

43. • Statistical tests are needed to
compare two or more groups for
the outcome of interest.
• Also required to interpret the
results published in scientific
articles

44. COMPARISON OF TWO OR MORE GROUPS
• Methods for comparing continuous measurements
• T-test – (2 groups, dependent or independent, normality
assumption
• ANNOVA – (>=2 groups, independent, normality
assumption)
• Wilcoxon rank sum test – (2 groups, dependent or
independent)
• Kruskal –Wallis test – (>= 2 groups, independent)
• Methods for comparing categorical variables:
• Chi square test for association
• Fisher’s exact test : best choice as it gives the exact p-
value, particularly where the numbers are small.

45. HOW TO WRITE DISCUSSION SECTION OF A
SCIENTIFIC PAPER ?

46. • Discussion is written after the introduction,
methodology and result section.
• The raw results have no meaning unless they
are not analyzed and their significance is
understood in context of data presented by
other researchers.
• The endeavor of the author to find clinical
implication of the study is brought out in the
discussion section.

47. FOUR BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE DISCUSSION SECTION
1.Revisit the methodology section to
understand strength and limitation of the
study
2.Note the result – basic findings including the
primary and secondary outcomes
3.Take notice of the hypothesis – whether it is
proven or not
4.Conduct meta analysis- to interpret the
results and understand its clinical relevance

48. DEVELOP THE DISCUSSION SECTION
Basic findings Mention short summary of results, for the
reader to grasp the summary of important
findings.
Primary outcomes These are compared with the results of
other researchers
Secondary outcomes They are also discussed according to
primary outcomes . They cannot give very
strong answers since the sample size
calculation is based on primary outcomes
Strength & limitations Strengths may be discussed but author
may not disclose the limitations fearing
rejection.
Generalizability I this part, author should explore whether
the findings of the study can be applied to
other persons, measures, settings and
time.
Perspectives Clinical implication of the study is
discussed in this section.

49. WHAT NOT TO DO?
• No speculations are allowed and the explanations are
based on one’s own results.
• Any attempt to manipulate the data is forbidden.
• Try to keep this section short respecting the given word
limit.
• Appropriate citations and referencing should be done.
• Do not criticize other studies while comparing the
findings.

50. Online tools
• SWAN: this is a text evaluation tool which has been
developed at the University of Eastern Finland. It has
been designed to help the authors to organize their
content according to scientific writing practices but
without much focus on grammar & spellings

51. WRITING AN EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION

52. • Conclusion is the synthesis of key points addressing the
research problem and if applicable, where you
recommend new areas for future research.
• It helps the reader in understanding the main motive
of the research paper.
• The conclusion may contain 3 elements:
1. Primary take home message avoiding repetition of concepts
already expressed.
2. The additional finding of importance/recommendations.
3. The area of possible improvement with future studies
avoiding statements like “ there is a need for further
research”.

53. HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION?
• Answer the question – answer your
readers why this paper was important.
• Synthesize , do not summarize
• Redirect your readers
• Create a new meaning

54. WHAT TO DO?
• Begin with clear statement of principle findings.
• Next few sentences should explain the importance of
the study using impactful words.
• Originality and accuracy should be maintained.
• With your conclusion aim to prove to the reader as
well as scientific community the worthy of the study
findings.
• Negative findings should never be ignored and rather
should be taken as an opportunity to explain their
possible significance.

55. WHAT NOT TO DO?
• Do not mention any new ideas, arguments,
evidence, or information that were not present
in the introduction.
• No statements should be made that downplay
your authority or discoveries.
• Do not write the abstract.
• Do not include evidence that should be present
in the body of the paper.

56. CITING & REFERENCING: WHY & HOW TO DO IT ?

57. • Holds very important place in paper writing.
• If the references are sloppy and have not
followed the respective journal’s guidelines, it
gives an impression of poor manuscript.
• It is important to credit a person(s) whose
work we have used in our research.
• Number of references needed varies with
publication (thesis, paper, book).
• Each journal have its own reference limit.
– Case reports: 4-8 references.
– Original articles: 25-30 references.
– Review articles: 35-40 references.

58. Citation: it is
acknowledging within
the text the
documents from
which one has
obtained information.
Reference: it is a
detailed
description of
document from
which one has
obtained the
information.
Bibliography: it is
a list of
publications one
has consulted.

59. Why to cite reference ??
• Credit
• Avoid plagiarism

60. What to reference?
• Cite only those references which you
personally have referred to.
• Direct quotations should be inserted in
quotation marks and referenced.
• Sources: Standard textbooks, peer-reviewed
journal articles, electronic sources (authentic).

61. WHAT NOT TO REFERENCE?
• Very well known facts (already established)
• Avoid referencing from non authentic sources
(newspapers, personal communications, non
peer reviewed works)
• Cross referencing should be avoided.
• Only full articles should be references.

62. HOW TO REFERENCE?
• Journal selection and refer to instructions.
• Various referencing styles:
– Vancouver system (numbered format)
– Harvard system (author-date format)
– APA style (American Psychological Association) (author-date format)
• Individual journal: italics, bold font, specific punctuation
• Nowadays, International Committee Of Medical Journal Editor’s (ICMJE)
recommendations (Formerly Uniform Requirements For Manuscripts submitted to
Biomedical Journals): Writing and Editing for Biomedical Publication. (2013)
(VANCOUVER format)
• In – text citations are numbered sequentially and pattern varies in each journal.
Some uses parenthesis (1) superscript1 , square brackets [1], or combination
thereof.
• For a journal article (in print), the format used in Vancouver style is:
Author, Title Of Journal Article, Title Of Journal, Year Of Publication, Volume Number
(Issue Number), Page Numbers Of The Articles

63. FOLLOWING PICTURES HIGHLIGHTS THE REFERENCING STYLE
USED IN SOME WELL KNOWN JOURNALS

66. COMMONLY USED SOFTWARES FOR REFERENCING
• Freely available referencing software:
BibBase, Bib Desk, CiteUlike, Docear, RefMe,
Wikindx, Zotero (300MB onlne storage).
• Paid software's: Endnote, Reference
Manager, ProCite

67. SELECTING KEYWORDS AND RUNNING TITLE

68. • Printed on every page (along with name of first
author and journal name).
• Contains 50-60 characters including spaces.
Eg., title: routine amoxycillin for uncomplicated severe acute
malnutrition in children.
Running title: amoxycillin for severe malnutrition in children.
• Includes abbreviations.
Eg., title: maternal fat but not lean mass is increased among
overweight/obese women with excess gestational weight
gain.
Running title: excess GWG and maternal fat mass.

69. • Concise form of main title. Short and accurate
Eg., title: cell free DNA vs sequential screening for the
detection of fetal chromosomal abnormalities.
Running title: cell free DNA and sequential screening
• Not necessary to use same words in the title but
different phrases or terms can be used.
Eg., coronary artery bypass graft vs drug eluting stents
implantation for previous myocardial infarction.
Running title: revascularization strategies for previous MI

70. AUTHORSHIP AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

71. • Authorship is “the state or fact of being the writer of
the book, article, or document or the creator of the
work of art”
• It confers academic & social credit, may be required
for postgraduate training , for promotional avenues
& may have financial implications.
• Also implies taking responsibility and accountability
of the published work.

72. AUTHORSHIP STANDARDS
• Criteria for authorship (ICJME)
– Substantial contributions to the conception or
design of work, or the acquisition, analysis or
interpretation of data for the work; and
– Drafting the work, revising it critically for
important intellectual content; and
– Final approval of the version to be published;
and

73. • Corresponding author: the one who will be
corresponding with the editor, will review their
comments, and whose contact details will be
printed with the article.
• Co-author(s): will review the manuscript and give
written approval of the final version being
submitted for publication and also for their role
in the manuscript.
• Gift authorship: names of an
important/influential persons should not be
added for the increased likelihood of paper being
published.

74. • Ghost authorship: this has been used for
commercial/professional writers who have not
contributed in planning or execution but are
being paid for preparing the manuscript.
• Acknowledgement: any person who do not
qualify for authorship but has provided
valuable contribution should be
acknowledged.
• Number of authors: most journals do limit the
number of author.

75. PLAGIARISM

76. INTRODUCTION AND PRESENT DAY
SCENARIO
SCIENTFIC WRITING HAS TO BE
• PRECISE,
• UNWAVERING,
• SHOULD BE ABLE TO COMMUNICATE THE MESSAGE THAT ACTUALLY NEEDS TO BE
GIVEN,
• SHOULD BE JARGON FREE,
• SHOULD BE IN AN EASY TO UNDERSTAND LANGUAGE
• SHOULD BE PUBLISHED
SO AS TO SHARE THE IDEAS, FACTS, FINDINGS, RESULTS WITH FELLOW COLLEAGUES
OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
PUBLICATION IS A PREREQUISTE FOR ARCHIVING, WHICH ENSURES THAT THE
IDEA/CONCEPT & THE FACTS/FINDINGS ARE AVAILABLE FOR FUTURE SCIENTISTS TO
KNOW THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE & TO UNDERSTAND WHAT RESEARCH HAS BEEN
DONE ON A PARTICULAR TOPIC AND ITS EVOLUTION

77. THE PRESENT DAY COMPULSION OF PUBLISHING HAS ONLY
INCREASED
• SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT
– DATA FABRICATION
– DATA FALSIFICATION
– PLAGIARISM
IN FACT, MCI HAS MADE PUBLICATIONS COMPULSARY FOR
PROMOTIONS, IN EFFECT TO ENCOURAGE RESEARCH
PUBLICATIONS FROM FACULTY .
DISADVANTAGE:
• RAT-RACE
• PROMOTED SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT
• MUSHROOMING OF PREDATORY JOURNALS TO TAKE
ADVANTAGE OF THE PRESSURES ON THE SCIENTIFIC
COMMUNITY.

78. UNDERSTANDING PLAGIARISM
• PLAGISRISM IS DEFINED AS ‘USING ANOTHER PERSON’S IDEAS,
PROCESSES, RESULTS, WORDS OR WORKS, WITHOUT GIVING
APPROPRIATE CREDIT OR WITHOUT ACKNOWLEDING THE AUTHOR
OR SOURCE, AND USING THEM AS ONE’S OWN.
• WAME: “THE USE OF OTHERS’ PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED
IDEAS OR WORK (OR IP) WITHOUT ATTRIBUTION OR PERMISSION,
& PRESENTING THEM AS NEW AND ORIGINAL RATHER THAN
DERIVED FROM AN EXISTING SOURCE”.
• THE UGC (PROMOTION OF ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AND PREVENTION
OF PLAGIARISM IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS)
REGULATION OF 2017 INTEND TO HAVE ZERO TOLERANCE POLICY
IN THE CORE AREAS OF MANUSCRIPT, AND ENVISAGES PENALTY
FOR PLAGIARISM.

79. TYPES OF PLAGIARISM
• PLAGIARISM OF IDEAS
• CUT AND PASTE / WORD FOR WORD PLAGIARISM
• MOSAIC OR PATCHWORK PLAGIARISM
• PARAPHRASING PLAGIARISM
• UNINTENTIONAL PLAGIARISM
• DATA PLAGIARISM
• IMAGE PLAGIARISM
• SELF PLAGIARISM
– DUPLICATION OR REDUNDANT PUBLICATION
– SEGMENTED OR SALAMI PUBLICATION
– AUGMENTED PUBLICATION

80. THANKYOU