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Writing Strategies Chapter1
1. Writing Up You University Assignments
and Research Projects
ROBERT BRUNET SOLÉ
Department of Chemical Engineering, URV, Tarragona
Sustainable Computer Aided Process Engineering Group
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2. 1. What are the key functions in academic
writing?
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Defining terms and ideas
1.3. Describing
1.4. Comparing and contrasting
1.5. Classifying
1.6. Explaning causes and effects
1.7. Developing an argument
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3. 1.1. Introduction
• Academic writing
• Essay
• Journal Article
• Dissertation
• Thesis
• Book
• ...
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4. 1.2. Defining terms and ideas
• When defining a term, a useful strategy is to fit the term you are describing
into a category followed by its distinguishing characteristics.
Term Category Characteristics
fminsearch Mathematical algorithm - Find minimum of a function
- Use free-derivative method
• fminsearch (term) is a mathematical algorithm in Matlab(category), that finds the
minimum of unconstrained multivariable function wuisng the free- derivative method
(characteristics)
• As well a definition uses often elements of comparison and contrast and
classification
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5. 1.2. Defining terms and ideas
1.2.1. Words and phrases assocaited with definitions
• By X is meant ...
• I am taking X to mean ...
• ..., namely, ...
• In the present study, X refers to ...
• The term as used here refers not to ... But instead/ rather to ...
• This term refers to ...
• In other words,
• In this respect, ...
• In this sense, ...
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6. 1.3. Describing
1.3.1. Describing processes
• Description can takes many forms in academic writing. In a technical writing
it usually involves explaning how to do or make something. In a research
report, it will be used to describe a methodology employed in the course of
your project.
• First(ly),...
• Second(ly),...
• Third(ly),...
• Next,...
• Then,...
• After this,...
• Finally/ Lastly,...
• Prior to ...
• Following...
• While...
• Simultaneously...
• Before...
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7. 1.3. Describing
1.3.2. Describing component parts
• Description can sometimes involve explaning the different elements of
which something is composed.
1.3.3. Describing a sequence of events
• Another form of description commonly used in academic writing is
chronological description.
• from...to
• by ...
• until ...
• during ...
• when ...
• by the time ...
• between...and...
•Before, after, next, in parallel, respectively, subsequently, prior to, simultaneously, X
preceded Y, later on, previously, later (than), followed (by), X succeded Y, at the
same time, earlier (than), preceded, concurrently,....
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8. 1.4. Comparing and contrasting
• Comparison and contrast involves consideration of the similarities and
differences between two or more things.
1.4.1. Method 1: Point-by-point comparison
1.4.2. Method 2: Similarities and differences comparison
1.4.3. Method 3: Item-by-item comparison
1.4.4. Words and phrases associated with comparison and contrast
Showing similarity
• Similary,...
• In the same way,...
• Likewise,...
• Correspondingly,...
• X is similar to Y in that both demonstrate...
• X is very much like Y in that both display...
• X shows similar characterisitcs to Y in that they both...
• There are several similarities between X and Y
• Both X and Y are...
• Neither X nor Y is/are...
• Both..., but neither...
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9. 1.4. Comparing and contrasting
Showing dissimilarity
• In contrast (to)
• There are marked differences between...
• What clearly distinguishes X from Y is...
• ...comparing like with like...
• ..of greater/ lesser significance than ...
• Whilst/ altough X is ..., Y is...
Indicating limitations of a comparison
• Any comparison between X and Y must necessarily be of limited value...
• This comparison must be viewed with a degree of caution...
• Comparisons between X and Y are possible only as far as... Is/are concerned
• The extent to which X and Y can be compared (very much) depends on...
• The extent to which a comparison can be made between X and Y is dependent
upon...
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10. 1.5. Classifying
• Because classification follows the kind of tree-like structure illustrated
above, such diagrams can be a very useful way of creating an outline for your
material before you begin writing.
Industries served
Biotechnology Pharmaceuticals Speciality Chemicals Consumer Goods
1.5.1. Words and phrases associated with classification
• X can be analysed/ broken down into three types
• X can be categorised/ classidied/ grouped according to...
• The first/ secod/ third/ next/ final or last type/ category/ division is made up of...
• One type...
• Another type...
• Still/ yet another type is...
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11. 1.6. Explaning causes and effects
• The discussion of casual relationships is commen in academic writing
where it is often necessary to understand and explain the reasons why things
happen, to justify why certain decisions have been take, or to interpret data.
• Discuss all the causes first and then discuss the effects in the same
order in as the following paragraphs
• Mention each cause separately and then discss its effect(s) Group
differen cuases/ effdects that share certain characteristics, then deal with
each group in turn.
Showing causes Showing effects
• because/ since/ as/ due to... • accordingly
• X is a/ the cause of... • hence/ thus/ therefore/ consequently...
• X is a casual factor in... • for this reason
• X determines whether... • X had an effect on/ led to...
• As a result of X; because of X ... • X is a result/ consequence of...
• Resulting from this ...
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12. 1.7. Developing an argument
• Good argument requires at least the followin inter-realated elements:
• a clear structure and focus;
• sound logic;
• the presentation of robust evidence;
• the effective use of appropiate link words and phrases to introduce connect
your ideas
1.7.1. Making a claim
• One way of making a claim is first to highlight a “problem“ or point of
concentration to which your essay or research offers a new prespective or
“solution“.
Having a claim Having a identified problem
• It has been claimed/ argued that... • It is here argued that...
• Some writers have claimed that... • In what follows it is argued that...
• It is the view of some researchers that...• The stance adopted in the following page
• It is often argued/ said that ... is...
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13. 1.7. Developing an argument
1.7.2. Structuring your argument
• Your arguments need to be well structured. All argument in academic writing
should make an appeal to reason rather than emotion.
•Addresses others‘ shortcomings
•Anticipates and deflects all potential criticisms as fara as possible
•Is focused
•Is clearly expressed
•Is well supported
1.7.3. Inductive and deductive reasoning
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14. 1.7. Developing an argument
1.7.4. Words and phrases associated with argumentation
Stating a viewpoint
• X argues that...
• X suggests that...
• An argument often cited in the literature is...
• X has proposed that...
• Y develops this argumnet further by stating that...
• P, on the other hand/in contrast, belives that ...
• It is clear that ...
• It must be accepted that...
• The evidence indicates that/ would appear to suggest that ....
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15. 1.7. Developing an argument
1.7.4. Words and phrases associated with argumentation
Questioning or refuting a viewpoint
• Conversely...
• It is often stated/ said/ suggested that...However...
• Some experts would argue that...However/Others...
• It has long been assumend that...
• ...whereas/ while...
• On the one hand ...; on the other hand,...
• ... yet/ but ...
• Another aspect/ dimension which may have had a bearing on..., and which is/ was
not taken into consideration/ account, is/was
• If X were the case, then Y would be true. That this is not the case suggests that
other factors/ determinants/ issues are involved/ are responssible for ....
• It is an over-simplification to say/ state/ argue that...
• X alone is not sufficient to explain/ is insufficient to explain...
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16. 1.7. Developing an argument
1.7.4. Words and phrases associated with argumentation
Refuting a viewpoint by first making a concession
• This argument is partailly accurate; however,...
• There is some credibility in the argument that...
• With one or two exceptions, it would be wrong/ incorrect to claim that...
• This argument has a certain superficial logic, but on closer examination...
• It is, of course, possible that...; however/ on the other hand, it could be argued
that ...
• Even if this assumption holds true, it does not mean that ...
• Altough it is possible to identify a number of factors that may contribute to..., in
general their effect on...is marginal.
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17. Thanks for your attention!
ROBERT BRUNET SOLÉ
Department of Chemical Engineering, URV, Tarragona
Sustainable Computer Aided Process Engineering Group
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