Literary theories

1. LITERARY CRITICISM
The paradigms and the possibilities…

2. Literary criticism is the study, discussion, evaluation,
and interpretation of literature.
DEFINITION …

3. "Literary criticism is the evaluation of literary works.
This includes the classification by genre, analysis of
structure, and judgement of value."
Let's try again …

4. "Literary criticism asks what literature is, what it does,
and what it is worth."
And again …

5. Literary criticism is the method used to interpret any
given work of literature. The different schools of
literary criticism provide us with lenses which
ultimately reveal important aspects of the literary
work.
In my own words …

6.  Talking about experiences enhances our
enjoyment of them
 Talking about experiences involves the search
for meaning which increases our
understanding of them
 Because Socrates said so: "The life which is
unexamined is not worth living."
Why do we have to analyze
everything????

7. Literary criticism helps us to understand what is
important about the text
 its structure
 its context: social, economic, historical
 what is written
 how the text manipulates the reader
To further explain …

8.  Literary criticism helps us to understand the
relationship between authors, readers, and
texts
 The act of literary criticism ultimately
enhances the enjoyment of our reading of
the literary work
And there's more …

9. Literary Criticism
Literary criticism has two main functions:
1. To analyze, study, and evaluate works of literature.
2. To form general principles for the examination of
works of literature.

10. What is literary theory?
 The capacity to generalize about phenomena and to
develop concepts that form the basis for interpretation
and analysis—in this instance, of a “literary” text.

11. 1. Formalism
2. Marxism
3. Feminism
4. Psychoanalytic
5. Cultural Criticism
6. Structuralism
7. Post-structuralism
8. Archetypal
YOU'RE GOING TO STUDY EIGHT
PARADIGMS …

12.  Author intention
 Reader Response
 Biological
 Cognitive scientific
 Moralist
 Queer
 Socio-political
 Sociological
 And so many more …
But there are many more …

13.  It considers the literary work in light of "what really
happened“ during the period reflected in that work. It
insists that to understand a piece, we need to understand
the author's biography and social back ground, ideas
circulating at the time, and the cultural milieu. Historicism
also "finds significance in the ways a particular work
resembles or differs from other works of its period and/or
genre," and therefore may involve source studies. It may
also include examination of philology and linguistics. It is
typically a discipline involving impressively extensive
research.
Historicism

14.  It examines the relationships between a text's ideas and its for
m, "the connection between what a text says and the way it's sai
d.“ New Critics/Formalists "may find tension, irony, or paradox in
this relation, but they usually resolve it into unity and coherence
of meaning." New Critics look for patterns of sound, imagery, nar
rative structure, point of view, and other techniques discernible
on close reading of "the work itself." They insist that the meanin
g of a text should not be confused with the author's intentions n
or the text's affective dimension--its effects on the reader. The o
bjective determination as to "how a piece works" can be found t
hrough close focus and analysis, rather than through extraneous
and erudite special knowledge.
New Criticism

15.  It "traces cultural and psychological 'myths' that shap
e the meaning of texts." It argues that“ certain literar
y archetypes determine the structure and function of
individual literary works," and therefore that literatur
e imitates not the world but rather the "total dream o
f human kind. "Archetypes (recurring images or symb
ols, patterns, universal experiences)may include motif
s such as the quest or the heavenly ascent, symbols su
ch as the apple or snake, or images such as crucifixion
—all laden with meaning already when employed in a
particular work.
Archetypal criticism

16.  It adopts the methods of "reading" employed by Freud and la
ter theorists to interpret what a text really indicates. It argues
that "unresolved and sometimes unconscious ambivalences in
the author's own life may lead to a dis-unified literary work, "a
nd that the literary work is a manifestation of the author's ow
n neuroses. Psychoanalytic critics focus on apparent dilemmas
and conflicts in a work and "attempt to read an author's own
family life and traumas into the actions of their characters,“ re
alizing that the psychological material will be expressed indire
ctly, encoded (similar to dreams) through principles such as "c
ondensation,“ "displacement," and "symbolism."
Psychoanalytic criticism

17.  It critiques patriarchal language and literatur
e by exposing how a work reflects masculine
ideology. It examines gender politics in work
s and traces the subtle construction of mascu
linity and femininity, and their relative status,
positionings, and marginalizations within wo
rks.
Feminist criticism

18.  It argues that literature reflects social institutions and that it
is one itself, with a particular ideological function: that litera
ture participates in the series of struggles between oppress
ed and oppressing classes which makes up human history. Si
milar to Marx's historical theory, Marxist criticism will focus
on the distribution of resources, materialism, class conflict,
or the author's analysis of class relations. It examines how s
ome works attempt to shore up an oppressive social order o
r how they idealize social conflict out of existence, how othe
rs offer an alternative collective life or propose a utopian visi
on as a solution.
Marxist criticism

19.  It questions traditional value hierarchies and takes a cross-disciplina
ry approach to works traditionally marginalized by the aesthetic ide
ology of white European males. Instead of more attention to the ca
non, cultural studies examines works by minority ethnic groups and
postcolonial writers, and the products of folk, urban, and mass cultu
re. Popular literature, soap opera, rock and rap music, cartoons, pro
fessional wrestling, food, etc. -- all fall within the domain of cultural
criticism. We are focusing on it particularly as it concerns questionin
g the ways Western cultural tradition expressed in literature defines
itself partly by stifling the voices of oppressed groups or even by de
monizing those groups. We will focus on how literary tradition has c
onstructed models of identity for oppressed groups, how these gro
ups have constructed oppositional literary identities, and how differ
ent communities of readers might interpret the same text differentl
y due to varied valuesystems.
Cultural criticism

20.  It "finds meaning by looking at a text within the frame work o
f the prevailing ideas and assumptions of its historical era,or b
y considering its contents within a context of 'what really hap
pened' during the period that produced the text." New Histo
ricists concern themselves with the political function of literat
ure and with the concept of power, "the complex means by
which societies produce and reproduce them selves.“ These c
ritics focus on revealing the historically specific model of trut
h and authority reflected in a given work.
New Historicism

21.  It "insists that all literature is a structure of experience,
not just a form or meaning, "and therefore focuses on f
inding meaning in the act of reading itself and examine
s the ways individual readers or communities of reader
s experience texts. These critics examine how the read
er joins with the author "to help the text mean." They d
etermine what kind of reader or what community of re
aders the work implies and helps to create. They exami
ne“ the significance of the series of interpretations the
reader goes through in the process of reading”.
Reader-Response criticism

22. 1. The World
2. The Author
3. The Text
Other
Texts
Real
World
4. The Reader
Beyond the
World
Text =
Objective
reality
Formalism: the TEXT (as art)
Structuralism: the TEXT (as language system)
Psychoanalytic: AUTHOR/READER/text
Reader Response: READER/TEXT/community
of readers w/shared values
THE 4 CRITICAL
VARIABLES of LITERARY
THEORY & CRITICISM
Text = Ideologically
constructed
language
ITS CONTEXT
Text = Symbol,
Archetype
Gender Studies: WORLD/author/text/reader
Postcolonial: AUTHOR/world/text/reader
Marxist: WORLD/text
Territorial: TEXT/[reader/ author/world])

23.  The work itself is placed in the center because all
approaches must deal, to some extent or another,
with the text itself.
 Formalism and deconstruction are placed here also
because they deal primarily with the text and not with
any of the outside considerations such as author, the
real world, audience, or other literature. Meaning,
formalists argue, is inherent in the text. Because
meaning is determinant, all other considerations are
irrelevant.
 Deconstructionists also subject texts to careful,
formal analysis; however, they reach an opposite
conclusion: there is no meaning in language.
Understanding the Map

24.  A historical approach relies heavily on the author and
his world. In the historical view, it is important to
understand the author and his world in order to
understand his intent and to make sense of his work.
In this view, the work is informed by the author's
beliefs, prejudices, time, and history, and to fully
understand the work, we must understand the author
and his age.
 An intertextual approach is concerned with
comparing the work in question to other literature, to
get a broader picture.
 Reader-Response is concerned with how the work is
viewed by the audience. In this approach, the reader
creates meaning, not the author or the work.
Cont'd …

25.  Mimetic criticism seeks to see how well a work
accords with the real world (is it accurate? correct?
moral? ).
 Then, beyond the real world are approaches dealing
with the spiritual and the symbolic--the images
connecting people throughout time and cultures
(archetypes). This is mimetic in a sense too, but the
congruency looked for is not so much with the real
world as with something beyond the real world--
something tying in all the worlds/times/cultures
inhabited by humans.
Cont'd …

26.  The Psychological approach is placed outside these poles
because it can fit in many places, depending how it is
applied:
(1) Historical if diagnosing the author himself
(2) Mimetic if considering if characters are acting by "real
world" standards and with recognizable psychological
motivations
(3) Archetypal when the idea of the Jungian collective
unconscious is included
(4) Reader-Response when the psychology of the reader--
why he sees what he sees in the text--is examined.
Cont'd …

27.  Likewise, Feminist, Minority, Marxist, and other such
approaches may fit in:
(1) Historical if the author's attitudes are being
examined in relation to his times (i.e. was
Shakespeare a feminist for his times, though he might
not be considered so today?)
(2) Mimetic--when asking how well characters accord
with the real world. Does a black character act like a
black person would, or is he a stereotype? Are women
being portrayed accurately? Does the work show a
realistic economic picture of the world?
Cont'd …

28. What does this literary work mean?
 Different approaches or lenses help us to
discover rich and deeper meaning
 Each lens has its strengths and weaknesses
 Each lens is valuable
 Try to become a pluralist rather than an
inflexible supporter of one
There are so many possible answers
…

29. Types of Literary Theory

30. Formalism
 Has the advantage of forcing writers to evaluate a
work on its own terms rather than to rely on
“accepted” notions of the writer’s work
 Works best when applied to poetry and short fiction.

31. Formalism
 Attempts to discover meaning by close reading of a
work of literature. Focus is on:
 Form, organization, and structure
 Word choice and language
 Multiple meanings
 Considers the work in isolation, disregarding author’s
intent, author’s background, context, and anything
else outside of the work itself.

32. Formalism/New Criticism
 The formalist movement began in England
with the publication of I.A. Richards’ Practical
Criticism (1929).
 American critics (such as John Crowe Ransom,
Robert Penn Warren, and Cleanth Brooks)
adapted formalism and termed their
adaptation “New Criticism.”

33. Formalism/New Criticism
 New Criticism varied from formalism in that
New Criticism focuses on image, symbol, and
meaning. Traditional formalists often
attacked New Critics for their lack of attention
to the form of the work.
 Seminal works on New Criticism include John
Crowe Ransom’s The New Criticism (1941) and
Cleanth Brooks’ The Well Wrought Urn (1947).

34. NEW CRITICISM
 Meaning resides in the text—not in reader,
author, or world
 Texts may contain numerous messages, but
must have a unifying central theme created by
the perfect union of all artistic elements.
 Texts are artistic creations
 Close reading is the basis of new critical
analysis
 The methodology for finding meaning is clear-
cut; the tools are unique to literary analysis
*one type of formalism

35. Impact of Formalism
Today, few critics adhere only to the formalist or New
Criticism theory. However, its back-to-the-basics
approach pervades many other critical theories.

36. Reader-Response Criticism
 Sees the reader as essential to the interpretation of a
work.
 Each reader is unique, with different educations, experiences,
moral values, opinions, tastes, etc.
 Therefore, each reader’s interaction with a work is unique.
 Analyzes the features of the text that shape and guide a
reader’s reading.
 Emphasizes recursive reading—rereading for new
interpretations.

37. Reader-Response Criticism
 Reader-response theory has been criticized as
being overly impressionistic and guilty of the
affective fallacy (too focused on the
emotional effect of the work). Less tactful
critics have plainly said that it is not
intellectual.
 These attacks resulted in an adaptation of
reader-response criticism called reception
theory.

38. READER RESPONSE
Text has many interpretations—text & reader interact to
create meaning
Meaning ultimately resides in the reader’s mind
or the consensual “mind” of a community of readers
(this class, for example)
A text’s truth is relative
Readers may reach the same conclusions about a
work--but approach the task quite differently

39. Reader-Response/Reception Theory
Reception theory is applied to the general reading
public rather than an individual reader.
 Each generation has different experiences, values,
issues, etc.
 Therefore, each generation will read a work
differently.

40. STRUCTURALISM
 Meaning resides in the structure of language, not in art
nor in the reader’s mind
 Scientific approach to literary analysis:
structure of language as a logical sign system
determines meaning
 Two levels of language: langue (“the King’s English”) &
parole (everyday speech)
 Interpret a text or part of a text by taking its language
apart (study word derivations, sentence syntax, etc.)

41. Biographical Criticism
 Analyzes an author’s life in regard to their work
 Can enhance the understanding of a work
 Must be used carefully—example: Kate Chopin

42. Sociological Criticism
Maintains that the literary work cannot be
separated from the social context in which it
was created. In general, sociological criticism
examines one of these two aspects:
 Conditions of production, such as schools,
magazines, publishers, and fashions.
 The applicability of a given work—fiction
especially—in studying the dynamics of a given
society.

43. Types of Sociological Criticism
Sociological theory is so broad that it can be subdivided
in many different categories. Two dominant theories
we’ll study are
 Feminist criticism
 Marxist criticism

44. Feminist Criticism
 Feminist criticism grew out of the women’s
movement that followed World War II.
 Feminist critics analyze the role of gender in
works of literature. Leading critic Elaine
Showalter describes two purposes of feminist
criticism:
 Feminist critique: The analysis of works by male
authors, especially in the depiction of women’s
writing
 Gynocriticism: The study of women’s writing

45. Feminist Criticism
Feminist critics have been responsible for
recovering neglected works by women
authors through the ages and creating a
canon of women’s writing.
A case in point is Kate Chopin. She was fairly
widely published in the 1890s, but her work
was largely neglected by literary critics until
the 1960s, when Chopin was “rediscovered”
by feminist critics.

46. FEMINIST CRITICISM
Meaning is socially constructed.
Texts have more than one interpretation
Texts are commodities (products of
society)
Truth is relative, highly dependent on
arbitrary categories of difference, esp.
those based on “sex” and “gender”
Look for systems of containment; for evidence
of repression, oppression, suppression,
subversion, & rebellion in texts by women;
study women’s unique ways of understanding
and writing about the human condition.

47. Marxist Criticism
 Marxist criticism is based on the social and economic
theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their
beliefs include the following:
 Value is based on labor.
 The working class will eventually overthrow the capitalist
middle class.
 In the meantime, the middle class exploits the working class.
 Most institutions—religious, legal, educational, and
governmental—are corrupted by middle-class capitalists.

48. Marxist Criticism
 Marxist critics apply these economic and
social theories to literature by analyzing:
 Ideologies that support the elite and place the
working class at a disadvantage
 Class conflict
 Marxism strongly influenced fiction,
particularly American fiction, in the 1930s.

49. New Historicism
 New historicist critics view literature as part of
history, and furthermore, as an expression of
forces on history.
 New historicism compares literary analysis to
a dynamic circle:
 The work tells us something about the surrounding
ideology (slavery, rights of women, etc.)
 Study of the ideology tells us something about the
work.

50. New Historicism
 New historicism takes two forms:
 Analysis of the work in the context in which it was
created
 Analysis of the work in the context in which it was
critically evaluated.
 New historicists assert that literature “does
not exist outside time and place and cannot
be interpreted without reference to the era in
which it was written” (Kirszner and Mandell
2038).

51. New Historicism
 Readers are influenced by their culture, so no
objective reading of a work is possible.
 Critics should consider how their own culture affects
their interpretation of the historical influence on a
work.

52. NEW HISTORICISM
 Literature is one among many socially constructed texts. If there is a
difference, it’s the intentional use of the imagination to convey ideas.
 History is every bit as subjective as intentionally imaginative texts
 Purpose of analyzing literature is to locate hidden social messages,
especially those that promote oppression.
 Texts have no final interpretation
 Language, though socially constructed, is stable enough to be useful.
 Find a small intriguing or odd piece of the text and interpret it by
comparing it to contemporary sign systems—magazines, newspapers,
fads, laws. Try to locate uses & abuses of power.

53. Psychoanalytic Criticism
 Analyzes literature to reveal insights about the way
the human mind works.
 Is based on the work of Sigmund Freud and his
disciples.
 Works well as a method of analyzing characters’
actions and motivations.

54. Basic Freudian Concepts
 All actions are influenced by the unconscious.
 Human beings must repress many of their desires to
live peacefully with others.
 Repressed desires often surface in the unconscious,
motivating actions.

55. Basic Freudian Concepts
 The mind has three major areas of activity:
 Id: Area in the unconscious that works for
gratification through the pleasure principle
 Superego: An internal censor bringing social
pressures to bear on the id.
 Ego: Area in the consciousness that mediates
among demands of social pressure, the id, and the
superego.

56. Mythological Approach
 Largely attributed to Carl Jung, a disciple of Sigmund
Freud
 Archetype: a model or pattern from which all other
things of a similar nature are made

57. Mythological Approach
 Collective Unconscious--there are certain basic
and central images and experiences that are
inherent in the human psyche
 Analyzes what in a work evokes a similar
response in people, regardless of culture
 Concerned with enduring patterns and how
they are reflected in literature

58. Examples of Archetypes
Common Themes:
 Stories of quest and initiation
 Descents into the underworld
 Ascents into heaven
 Search for father/mother
 Fall from innocence

59. Examples of Archetypes
Characters:
 Scapegoat
 Hero/Villian
 Outcast
 Temptress
 Mother/Father
 Mentor