Bentuk teks dan ciri-cirinya

Text
Forms
and
Features
November 10
2010
This resource is intended for use as a reference for teachers,
but not as a curriculum guide. It is to be used in conjunction
with other documents supporting the essential academic
learning requirements. However, the information is not
definitive, nor is it specific to any particular level. Teachers
will need to delete and add according to the competencies of
their students and the nature of the current lesson or task.
A Resource for
Intentional
Teaching

ii
Text Forms and Features
A Resource for Intentional Teaching
This material is available in alternative format upon request. Contact Program
Development, 360/586-1486 or TDD 360/664-3631. The Office of Superintendent
of Public Instruction complies with all federal and state rules and regulations and
does not discriminate based on race, color, national origin, sex, disability, age, or
marital status.
Authors: Dr. Terry Bergeson
Publisher: Umbrella Corporation Press
This book is protected by trademark and other pending or existing intellectual
property rights in Indonesia and other countries.
Signed by,
Rachmat Wahidi
CEO Umbrella Corporation

iii
Table of Contents
Table of contents ......................................................................................................... iii
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
An Overview of the Main Categories of Text Forms .............................................. 5
Text Forms ................................................................................................................... 7
Text Features ................................................................................................................ 92
Examples of Techniques Authors Use to Engage Readers ..................................... 108
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 111
Notes

1
Introduction
This document is designed for use by K–12 teachers. It is authored in response to
teachers’ questions about the attributes and characteristics of various forms of
writing. This resource has been developed to provide easily accessible information
about text forms and features referenced in the reading and writing sections of the
Essential Academic Learning Requirements Technical Manual (July 17, 1998) and
“A Framework for Achieving the Essential Academic Learning Requirements in
Reading Grades K–6 (Draft).”
It is anticipated that the resource will have several uses by providing guidelines for:
• Reassessing material already available;
• Extending the range of material available for classroom use;
• Identifying teaching points to help students understand the nature of a
specific text form and how this affects the rate and style of reading or its
function as a vehicle for written communication;
• Assisting teachers and students to establish rubrics for assessing writing and
reading tasks and accomplishments;
• Identifying common targets and vocabulary within buildings or districts.
This resource is intended for use as a reference for teachers, but not as a curriculum
guide. It is to be used in conjunction with other documents supporting the essential
academic learning requirements. However, the information is not definitive, nor is
it specific to any particular level. Teachers will need to delete and add according to
the competencies of their students and the nature of the current lesson or task.

2
The number in parentheses after each item refers to the grade at which it is
introduced in “A Framework for Achieving the Essential Academic Learning
Requirements in Reading K–12 (Draft).” It is emphasized that this grade denotes
the suggested level of introduction. Teachers will need to make their own decisions
about the most appropriate time to introduce a form or feature. Once introduced,
an item will need continued focus in subsequent grades with students receiving
frequent opportunities and guidance to extend their understanding and use of the
form or feature in an increasing range of contexts.
The suggested level of introduction does not mean that all of the features should be
taught at that time. For example, expository texts are first introduced at
kindergarten. The list of features goes well beyond simple forms appropriate for
this level. On the other hand, dictionaries are introduced at the second grade. This
does not mean that the children will not have been using dictionaries before that
time. Some forms are introduced twice (for example, diaries at kindergarten and
third grade) reminding teachers of the fictional and non-fiction function of many
forms.
The general format for each entry is why, what, and features. However, all three are
not necessarily included.
• The first part of this document deals with text forms, which can loosely be
thought of as “genres” of text. It is followed by a section on text features.
These form the bulk of the document.
• They are followed by examples of links between text forms and show how a
text form introduced at one level can be the springboard for introducing
other forms at later levels. It is emphasized that the introduction is only the
beginning and further teaching and practice will be necessary at subsequent
stages.
• The final section reminds teachers of the breadth and depth of intentional
teaching required in order to implement the essential academic learning re-
quirements in reading through examples of some of the techniques authors

3
employ to engage their readers and ways in which knowledge about one text
form can lead to learning about another.
The entries or items within entries are not listed in hierarchical order. The number
and order in which any are introduced or are emphasized in the classroom will be
determined by the teacher or the teacher and the student.
As with all parts of this resource, the content here is as applicable to writing as it is
to reading. It is strongly recommended that students should first have experiences
with the various text forms and features through hearing then read and through
reading them in supported and independent situations before being expected to
write them on their own. Text and form features identified during and following
the reading experiences can then form a foundation for frameworks and rubrics to
be extended or used for reflection during further reading and/or writing activities.
In one classroom, for example, after reading fables to the students and providing
opportunities and materials for the students to read some on their own, the teacher
and students identified the following five features as essential elements of all fables.
The animals are always animals.
The animals act and talk like humans.
There is always some trickery in the story.
A fable always has a moral.
Fables tell about one incident.
Each student then made a rubric choosing three of the above features to guide their
planning and reflection when writing their own fables.
My mark My T’s mark
My characters are
animals.
The animals talk.
My fable tells a
moral.

4
This resource is intended to be a working document for teachers to add to and
amend as necessary. Space is provided for teachers to list titles and to make notes
on skills and strategies introduced, as well as notes on writing opportunities and
assignments related to each form of text. This resource is not intended to be a
stand-alone—it needs to be used alongside other manuals, guides, and references
and always matched with the competencies, interests, and experiences of the
students.

5
An Overview of the Main
Categories of Text Forms
There are many genre charts presenting different ways of categorizing text forms.
This document will be able to be adapted to most, if not all, such classifications.
Although Text Forms and Features: A Resource for Intentional Teaching has been
based on the following “umbrella” classification, there will be some overlap between
the various groups of text. It is recommended that there should be some flexibility
when classifying or assessing material.
Writing can then be further categorized into subgroups with recipes, game rules, or
manual examples of procedural texts.
Recount Report Narrative Procedural
Expository Interactive
Fiction Non-fiction
Realistic
Fantasy
Science
Historical
Contemporary
Technical
Science
The Art
Social Studies
Health and Fitness
Mathematics

6
Students can be helped to understand the key elements of the main groups through
prioritizing “why, what, how, when, where, and who.” The following table is an
example of how this might be recorded for the students’ continuous reference.
Procedural What When How What if
Narrative Who
What
happened
When or
where
Recount When What Who Where
Report What Where Who Why
Expository What How Why Where
It is emphasized that the priority order will change according to the content and/or
the audience and, sometimes, within any one piece of writing. The students could
make their own small cards and a grid showing beginning, middle and end, moving
the cards as the sequence or priority changes within a piece. For example, the what
may become most important at the climax of a narrative.

7
Text Forms
Analytical Expositions
Analytical exposition is a text that elaborates the writer’s idea about the
phenomenon surrounding. It is used to persuade the reader that something is the
case. Therefore, sometimes it is called a persuasive text. Text organization:
• Statement of position or thesis, this stage includes a “preview of
arguments.” It introduces topics and indicates the writer’s position.
• Arguments, this stage consists of a “point and elaboration” sequence. The
number of points may vary, but each must be supported by discussion and
evidence (which is elaboration of the point). Points are ordered according to
the writer’s choice, but it is usual to discuss the strongest points first.
• Reinforcement of the statement of position (reiteration), the last stage
restates the position more forcefully in the light of the arguments presented.
Language features:
• The use of words that qualify statements, e.g. usually, probably;
• The use of compound1
and complex2
1
A compound sentence is composed of two simple sentences joined together by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. The comma is sometimes omitted in short compound sentences.
sentences;
Compare: she was so sad, and sometimes she did not eat her food. (compound sentence)
she was so sad and sometimes she did not eat her food. (short compound sentence)
2
A complex sentence has two parts: independent and dependent clause. Example:
If you are fat, your heart has to work harder.
dependent clause independent clause

8
• The use of technical verbs, e.g. species;
• The use of words that link arguments, e.g. firstly, on the other hand, therefore;
• The use of present tenses;
• The use of actions and thinking verbs, e.g. believe, guess, feel;
• The use of modal verbs and modal adverbs, e.g. must, can, should, may;
• The use of connectives, e.g. firstly, secondly;
• The use of emotive3
or evaluative languages4
Read the text below. Pay attention to its text organization and its features.
.
Being Fat Matters
Do you know if you are too fat, you may have serious
problems with your health? A group of doctors wrote a report
about some of the effects of too much fat.
One important effect is on the heart. If you are fat, your
heart has to work harder. This may lead to other heart problem.
In addition, extra fat can also change the amount of sugar
in your blood. This can cause serious disease such as diabetes.
Furthermore, high blood pressure is another possible
result of being fat.
3
Emotive language is used to add strong description to the facts and so helps to create extremely
subjective tones to the text.
4
Evaluative language is another way that is used to persuade people agree with the writer’s
opinion instead of emotive language. Some examples of evaluative language are:
it is true that… it is important … there’s no doubt that …
I strongly believe that … it is obvious that … it is clear that …
In is undeniable that … it is unavoidable that … it is believe that …
Thesis
Arguments

9
More studies are needed about all these problems.
However, one thing is clear, extra fat may make your life
shorter.
(Adapted from: Let’s Write English)
Anecdotes
Anecdote is a text, which retells funny and unusual incidents in fact, or
imagination. Its purpose is to entertain the readers.
Text organization:
• Abstract, this stage writer retells an unusual incident.
• Orientation, this stage writer sets the scene and introduces the participants.
• Crisis, this stage provides details of unusual incident.
• Incident, this stage shows reaction of crisis.
• Coda, the last stage shows reflection on or evaluation of the incident. This is
optional.
Language features:
• The use of exclamation words;
• The use of imperative, e.g. listen to;
• The use of rhetorical question5
• The use of action verbs
;
6
• The use of direct speeches;
;
5
Author to ask audiences, knowing of course, there will be no direct answer, often uses rhetorical
question. Example: Have you ever built a tree hut?
6
Action verbs refer to the verbs of ‘doing’ and ‘happening’. Action verbs are also known as
material process. Compare:
‘doing’: create, build, make, develop, send, throw, pour, solve.
‘happening’: move, fall, rise, come, go, soften, harden, melt.
Reiteration

10
• The use of time connectives, e.g. then, afterward, while, a long ago, a year
passed by, the next day, once, at the end of the story;
• The use of past tenses.
Mrs. Brown and a Plumber
Mr. Brown was very good at fixing things around the
house when they broke. One day, he went to another city to do
some works there, and his wife was alone in the house. While
Mr. Brown was away, one of the faucets on the bathtub broke.
Mrs. Brown did not know much about fixing broken faucet, so
she telephoned a plumber.
The plumber came to the house that afternoon and fixed
the faucet in a few minutes. When he finished, he gave Mrs.
Brown his bill for the work. She looked at it for several seconds
and then said, “Your prices are very high, aren’t they? Do you
know? The doctor costs less than this when he comes to the
house.” “Yes, I know,” answered the plumber. “I know that very
well, because I was a doctor until I was lucky enough to find
this job a few months ago.”
(Adapted from: www.authorstream.com)

11
Recounts
Recount is a text that retells events or experiences in the past. Its social function is
either to inform the purpose and entertain or to retell the events to audience. There
is no complication among the participants and that differentiates from narrative.
Types of recount:
• Personal recount, this recount usually retells an event that the writer was
personally involved in.
• Factual recount, this recount usually records an incident, e.g. a science
experiment.
• Imaginative recount, this recount usually writes an imaginary role and
giving details of events.
Text organization:
• Orientation, this stage provides the setting and introduces participants.
• Events, tells what happened, in what sequence.
• Reorientation, closures of events (it is optional).
Language features:
• Focus on personal participant, e.g. I, my friend;
• The use of chronological connection, e.g. then, first;
• Sequence and time are important;
• The recount has a title, which usually summarizes the text;
• In a factual recount, details are selected to help the reader reconstruct the
activity or incident;
• In a imaginative recount, personal thoughts/reactions are included;
• Focusing on temporal sequences;
• Indicators in children’s books include days of the week, use of ordinal
numbers, characters acting in sequence, cumulative structures;
• Dialog and/or indirect speech may be interspersed throughout;
• No flashback;

12
Joining the Traditional Dance Competition
I joined the Traditional Dance Competition in Jakarta last
year. I represented my Junior High School. It was my biggest
competition. I practiced hard with my teacher for a month. We
also prepared the best costume we had.
We only had one day in Jakarta. We went there by plane.
We left at 6 a.m. and arrived in Jakarta at 7 a.m. We took a taxi
to take us to the place where the competition was held. It took
an hour to get there. There were already some participants
when we arrived. The competition would start in an hour.
First, my teacher and I went to the dressing room. My
teacher helped me do the make-up and the costume. We spent
almost an hour for the preparation. I told my teacher that I was
nervous. I was not ready for this. However, she told me that
everything was alright, and I felt better.
Then, the time came for me to perform on stage. There
were five judges and about two hundred people watching me.
However, I did not feel nervous anymore. I performed on the
stage confidently. I really did the best I could. I was glad when it
ended smoothly.
After that, we waited for the announcement of the result.
It was 4 p.m. when the judges finished making their final
decision. I was so impatient to hear the result. I still could not
believe when they called my name as the first winner. I was so
Orientation
Events

13
happy to be given the trophy. My teacher was also proud of my
achievement. Finally, we went back to Yogyakarta in the
evening. We were so tired. However, we were satisfied because
our effort was not useless.
(Adapted from: Interlanguage: English for Senior High
School Students X)
Reports
Report is a text which presenting information about something. Its function is to
describe the way things are, with reference to a range of natural, man-made and
social phenomena in our environment. It is because of systematic observation and
analysis. Informative reports are written about living things like plants and non-
living things like oceans. An information report is used when we talk and write
about. When writing a description we only talk/write about one specific thing.
Text organization:
• General classification, this stage states classification of general aspect of
thing, such as animal, public place, plant, etc, which will be discussed in
general.
• Description, this stage tells what the phenomenon under discussion is like in
terms of parts, qualities, if living; uses, if non-natural.
Language features:
• Introducing group or general aspect, e.g. computers, orchids, plants,
earthquake;
• The use of present tense;
• No temporal sequence;
• Nouns and noun phrases are used rather than personal pronouns.
• The use of personal pronouns is limited;
Events

14
• Some reports use technical or scientific terms, e.g. oxygen, hydrogen,
characteristics, features, criteria, divisions, types, members, formation, sorts;
• The use of linking verbs, e.g. is, are, has, have, has, resemble, appear, look;
• The use of behavioral verbs7
• May include numbering, subheadings, margin entries, bullets, asterisks, and
references;
, e.g. feed, burrow, suck, perch, sunbathe;
• Includes some prioritizing, summarizing, generalizing, and paraphrasing;
• Photographs, diagrams, maps, etc. usually accompany it.
Tornados
A tornado is a powerful, twisting windstorm. It is one of
the most destructive storms in the world. A tornado is also
called a waterspout.
A tornado is a long cloud that comes down from the sky. It
is shaped like a funnel and consists of wind that whirls around
and around extremely fast. In fact, the wind can reach a speed
of more that 900 km/hour.
Most tornados form a long a front (boundary) between
cool, dry air and warm, humid air. Weather scientists are
unable to know exactly when tornado will occur. Fortunately,
the tornado is not usually very big and it does not last long.
(Adapted from: Look Ahead 2)
7
Pay attention to the following sentences. They refer to physiological and psychological behavior
of living things.
Compare: deer feed on young leaves; bees suck honey from flowers;
rabbits burrow in the ground; birds perch on trees.
General
classification
Identification

15
Spoofs
Spoof is a text that tells factual story, happened in the past time with unpredictable
and funny ending. Its purpose is to entertain and share with the others a real story
of which the ending is funny to amuse the audience or readers.
Text organization:
• Orientation, this stage is opening of the story that sets the scene.
• Events, this stage shows the details of the events in the story.
• Twist, the funny or unpredictable ending of the story.
Language features:
• Focus on people, animals, or certain things;
• The use of action verb;
• The use of direct speeches or verbal verbs;
• The use of adverbs;
• The use of time connectives;
Fluffy Bunny Rabbit
After a long day at the office, Chris came home one day
and found his dog with the neighbor’s pet rabbit in his mouth.
The rabbit was obviously dead. Chris panicked!
“If my neighbors find out my dog killed their bunny,
they’ll hate me forever,” he thought. Therefore, he took the
dirty, chewed up rabbit into the house, gave it a bath, and blow-
dried its fur. Chris knew his neighbors kept their backdoor
Orientation
Events

16
open during the summer, so he sneaked inside and put the
bunny back into the cage, hoping his neighbors would think it
died of natural causes.
A couple of days later, Chris and his neighbor saw each
other in the outside. “Did you hear that Fluffy die?” the
neighbor asked.
“Oh, I’m sorry to hear that. What happened?” Chris
muttered. The neighbor replied, “We just found him dead in his
cage one day. But the strange thing is that the day after we
buried him, we went out to dinner and someone must have dug
him up, gave him a bath and put him back into the cage.”
(Adapted from: www.webwombat.com.au)
Narratives
Narrative is a text focusing specific participants. Its function is to amuse, entertain,
to gain and hold a readers’ interest, and to deals with problematic events which lead
to a crisis or turning point of some kind, which in turn finds a resolution.
Narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes/social
opinions. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from
recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems,
which must eventually find a way to be resolved. Text organization:
• Orientation, this stage sets the scene: where and when the story happened,
introduces the participants of the story and what is involved in the story.
• Evaluation8
8
Sometimes a writer puts his judgment on a certain participant or a certain event. This is also
called evaluation. Example:
, is a stepping back to evaluate the plight, this stage is optional.
Once, there lived a girl named Snow White. She was a kind-hearted girl.
evaluation
Twist
Events

17
• Complication, this stage describes the beginning of the problem that leads to
the climax of the main participants, which the participants have to do with.
• Resolution, this stage shows the way of participant to solve the crises, for
better or for worse.
• Reorientation, it is a closing remark to the story, and it is optional. It
consists of a moral lesson, advice or teaching from the writer.
Language features:
• The use of time connectives, e.g. a couple of days, fortunately, ever since then;
• The use of conjunctions, e.g. after, before, since, while, when, as, so that,
although, even though, because, in case, for, as if, as though;
• The use of adverbs and adverbial phrases, e.g. angrily, in horror, very badly;
• Specific nouns, strong nouns have more specific meanings, e.g. ‘oak’ as
opposed to tree;
• Some dialogue may include, using present or future tenses;
• The use of the senses, where appropriate, that are used to describe and
develop the experiences, setting and character;
• The use of verbal verbs9
• The use of noun phrases, e.g. a big old tree, a good story book;
and action verbs;
Imagery of narrative:
• Simile, a direct comparison, using likes or as or as though, e.g. the sea looked
as rumpled as a blue quilted dressing gown.
• Metaphor, an indirect or hidden comparison, e.g. she has a heart of stone.
• Onomatopoeia, a suggestion of sound through words, like crackle, splat,
ooze, squish, boom, e.g. the tires whir on the road.
9
Verbal verbs are also known as saying verbs. Ask, say, answer, reply, rebuke, mutter, speak, tell,
whisper, boast, insist, demand, explain, stammer, inquiry, suggest, complain, snap, plead, and shout
are some examples of saying verbs.

18
• Personification, giving non-living things living characteristics, e.g. the steel
beam clenched its muscles.
• Rhetorical questions, often the author asks the audience questions, knowing
of course there will be no direct answer. This is a way of involving the reader
in the story at the outset, e.g. have you ever built a tree hut?
Types of narrative:
• They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both.
• They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror
stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives,
ballads, slice of life, and personal experience.
To help students plan for writing of narratives model, focusing on:
• Plot: what is going to happen?
• Setting: where and when will the story take place?
• Characterization: who are the main characters? what do they look like?
• Structure: how will the story begin? what is the problem? how is the problem
going to be resolved?
• Theme: what is the theme/message the writer is attempting to communicate?
Two Travelers and a Big Tree
Once, two men traveled on a dusty and rough road that
had no trees on its sides. They were walking to a distant village
during daylight to attend a wedding feast.
The summer sun was so hot that they were sweating a lot.
They looked for a shady tree for a shelter from the sun.
After some time, they saw a big old tree with thick, green leaves
Orientation
Complication #1
Resolution #1

19
and branches spread everywhere like a big umbrella. They made
the tree for a shelter, put their small bundles on the ground, and
stretched themselves out in the cool shadow of the tree. They
felt relieved and rested for a while, talking about the wedding
feast.
After about one hour, one of the travelers said to his
friend, “Look! What a useless ugly old tree. So big and yet it
bears no fruit at all!”
On hearing this, the tree felt insulted. Angrily, it yelled,
“You, ungrateful man! You are enjoying my cool shadow and
using it for a shelter, yet you call me useless and ugly! Can you
be a more wretched creature than you can? So now, get up and
get away from here!”
Feeling scared that a tree could talk, the two men ran away
in horror.
(Adapted from: Look Ahead 2)
Hortatory Expositions
Hortatory exposition is a text that represents the attempt of the writer to have the
addressee do something or act in certain way. Its social function is to persuade the
reader that something should or should not be the case.
Text organization:
• Thesis, this stage shows announcement of issue concern to the audiences.
• Arguments, this stage shows the reasons for concern and leads to
recommendation.
• Recommendation, this stage shows statement of what ought to or ought not
to happen.
Complication #2
Resolution #2
Reorientation
Resolution #1

20
Language features:
• Focus on generic human and non-human participants, except for speaker or
writer referring to self;
• The use of abstract noun, e.g. policy, advantage;
• The use of emotive verbs, e.g. alarmed, worried;
• The use of words that link arguments, e.g. firstly, however, on the other hands;
• The use of compound and complex sentences;
• The use of mental processes, e.g. feel, realize;
• The use of modal verb, e.g. must, can, should, must be, might, have to;
• The use of temporal connective, e.g. firstly, secondly;
• The use of evaluative words, e.g. valuable, trustworthy;
• The use of relational processes, e.g. does not, seem to, have been, is, are;
• The use of passive voice;
• The use of subjective opinions10
• The use of present tenses.
using pronouns I and we;
Indonesian People Should Value All the Different
Cultures to Promote Unity of the Nation
Indonesia is a culturally diverse country. Many different
religions and cultures from many provinces are now seen living
side by side in many places. One of the biggest questions facing
Indonesian today is how to deal with a culturally diverse
citizenry and then promote unity. For that reason, Indonesians
should appreciate differences among culture for the following
reasons.
10
Compare:
Subjective opinion: I think that management could take a softer stance against our union.
Objective opinion: Management could take a softer stance against the union.
Thesis

21
Firstly, Indonesia is vulnerable to separation for its
archipelago and culture diversity. Raising tolerance among
people is the best way to maintain the unity among differences.
Many ways or cultures of living are equally legal, even if some
people do not regard them as normal. If a society claims to be
tolerant of personal choice, then it must respect the personal
choice to retain their heritage. Then, unity of the nation can be
preserved.
Secondly, Indonesians must recognize that every culture
has different customs and beliefs. Thus, people are forbidden to
make judgments of comparative value, for it is measuring
something unmeasured. A plurality of nations, especially in the
modern era, can allow for cultural development and cultural
exchange that benefits both parties. The cross-cultural
understanding among cultures makes the world a better place
and preserves the unity of the nation.
Lastly, raising nationalism is one way to preserve unity of
the nation. It is a sense of fellow feeling between group
members. This promotes cooperation and social cohesion
within the group. The sense of social cooperation makes
welfare, social security, and medical programs much more
likely and stronger.
Cultural differences are sometime a sensitive matter for
people. Indonesian people must teach younger generation
about the importance of the cultural identity and nationalism
to promote unity of the nation.
(Adapted from: www.idebate.org)
Arguments
Recommendation

22
Discussions
Discussion is a text, which presents—at least—many different aspects of an issue.
This issue will be discussed from different viewpoints. Discussion is commonly
found in philosophical, historic, and social text. Discussion is used to support ideas
that presented in sequence to justify a particular stand or viewpoint that a writer is
taking.
Text organization:
• Statement of issue, this stage introduces the statement and previews of issue.
• Arguments for and against, this stage shows statement of different points of
view.
• Recommendation or conclusion, this stage states the writer’s
recommendation of the issue.
Language features:
• Introducing category or generic participant;
• The use of comparison and contrast words, e.g. also, as, like, similar to,
although, differs from, however;
• The use of linking words, e.g. on the other hand, although, in contrast to, this
is supported by, in spite of, however;
• The use of repetition words, phrases and concepts deliberately for effect;
• The use of passive voices that help structure the text;
• The use of thinking verb, e.g. feel, hope, believe;
• The use of adverbial of manner.
Read the text on the next page. Pay attention to its text organization and its
features.

23
Mobile Phones: Good or Bad?
Everywhere you go currently, you see people using mobile
phones. From schoolchildren to the people, you see them
talking in the supermarket, on trains, in the street, everywhere!
So what are the advantages of mobile phones?
First, they are very convenient because you can phone
from nearly anywhere. Another advantage is that they are useful
in emergencies.
For example, if you are alone in your car and it breaks
down, you can get help quickly. In addition, you can also use
your mobile to text your friends or connect to the Internet.
However, there are disadvantages such as the cost. Mobile
phone calls cost more than normal calls. In addition, it can be
annoying if you are on a train or a bus and you have to listen to
someone else’s boring conversation. Lastly, people can contact
you anywhere, at any time, except you switch your phone off!
In brief, there are both advantages and disadvantages.
Personally, I feel mobile phones are a good thing because they
give us more freedom and make communication easier.
(Adapted from: Language to Go)
Statement of
the issue
Arguments for
Arguments
against
Conclusion

24
Explanations
Explanation is a text to explain the processes involved in the formation or workings
of natural or socio-cultural phenomena. Explanation text is to say “why” and “how”
of the forming of the phenomena. It is often found in science, geography, and
history textbooks.
There are two basic types of explanation, which focus on:
• How, e.g. how does a pump work?
• Why, e.g. why is the ozone layer getting thinner?
Text organization:
• General statement, this stage provides a general statement to position the
reader.
• Sequenced explanation, this stage tells a sequenced explanation of why or
how something.
• Closing.
Features of explanation:
• Focus on generic participant;
• The use of action verbs;
• The use of linking verbs11
• The use of action verbs;
, e.g. seem, appear, sound;
• Passive voice is commonly used;
• The use of temporal and causal circumstances;
• The use of non-human participant, e.g. the sea, the jungle;
• The use of conjunction, e.g. and, so, then, after this, so;
11
Linking verbs is so-called relational process. Some example of linking verbs are look, taste,
smell, feel, become, remain, turn, grow, go, run, come, keep, act, represent, reveal, function, portray,
refer to, indicate, weigh, stay, cost, measure, make, realize, and denote.

25
Where Does Rain Come From?
Rain always comes from clouds. However, where do
clouds come from? How does all that water get into the sky?
Think about your bathroom. There is hot water in your
bath. Steam goes up from the hot water. The steam makes small
clouds in the bathroom. These warm clouds meet the cold walls
and windows, and then we see small drops of water on the walls
and windows.
The world is like your bathroom. The water in the oceans
is warm when the sun shines on it. Some of this water goes up
into the sky and makes clouds. The wind carries the clouds for
hundreds of kilometers. Then the clouds meet cold air in the
sky, and we see drops of water. The drops of water are rain.
The rain falls and runs into rivers. Rivers run into oceans.
Then the water from oceans makes clouds and more rain. So,
water is always moving from oceans to clouds to rain to rivers
to oceans.
Therefore, the rain on your head was on other heads
before! The water in your garden was in other gardens in other
countries.
(Adapted from: Junior Comprehension 1)
General
statement
Sequenced
explanation
Closing

26
Procedures
Procedure is a text that shows a process in order. Its purpose is to describe how
something is accomplished through a sequence of actions or steps.
Text organization:
• Goal, this stage shows the purpose.
• Material, this stage tells the needed materials. This stage is not required for
all procedure texts.
• Steps, this stage shows a series of steps oriented to achieving the goal.
Language features:
• The use of temporal conjunction;
• Focuses on generalized people rather than individuals;
• The reader is often referred to in a general way, e.g. pronouns you or one;
• The use of simple present tense, often imperative;
• Detail information on how;
• The use of action verb;
• The use of technical language;
• The use of adverb to tell how the action should be done;
• Begin with verbs and are stated as commands;
• The use of time words or numbers.
There are different procedure texts for different purposes:
• Texts that explain how something works or how to use instruction or
operation manuals, e.g. how to use the video;
• Texts that instruct how to do a particular activity, e.g. recipes;
• Texts that deal with human behavior, e.g. how to live happily.
features.

27
How to Find Unusual Gifts
Giving gifts is a well-known way to show our attention
toward somebody else. Moreover, giving gifts may be important
for certain special moments. Unusual or even weird gifts would
leave a sweet memory for the recipient and us. So, try these tips
to find something unusual as your gifts.
Look for gifts wherever you find yourself, especially when
you were on a trip, from a bazaar in Bandung to a tag sale in
Berlin.
Use the Internet. Follow links until you find what you
want. Track down items such as rare prints, out-of-print books,
or antiques in the auction.
Give a welcome service. A massage, costume makeovers, a
day at the spa, or romantic dinner will be a nice welcome gift.
Combine one or two things for a spectacular effect. The
picture frame that you bought in Bali might provide the perfect
background for showing off the portrait of the recipient.
Come to a handicrafts store and talk to the people that
make unique pieces. Visit art supply stores, craft shops, art
galleries, and factory stores for ideas.
(Adapted from: www.howabout.com)
Goal
Steps

28
News Items
News item is a text that informs readers about events of the day, which are
considered newsworthy or important.
Text organization:
• Main event, this stage recounts the event in summary form.
• Background events, this stage elaborates what happened, to whom, in what
circumstances.
• Resource of information, this stage shows comments by participants,
witnesses to and authorities’ expert on the event.
Language features:
• Focus on circumstances;
• The use of saying verb, e.g. said, asked, told;
• Passive voices may be used;
• The use of material process to retell the event;
• The use of projecting verbal processes in sources stages;
• Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline;
• The use of simple past tense.
features.

29
Lohan’s Sentence to Visit Morgue
BEVERLY HILLS, CALIFORNIA: Lindsay Lohan is about to see
dead people.
In June, the 21-year-old actress will visit the morgue as
part of her punishment for misdemeanor drunken driving.
“She’s going to see bodies. We’ll have anywhere from 20 to
50 people in the class and she’s treated like any other
individual,” Los Angeles County Coroner’s Assistant Chief Ed
Winter said Friday.
Lohan was arrested twice last year on DUI charges and
pleaded guilty in August to misdemeanor drunken driving and
cocaine charges.
“The morgue visits include a walk-through of the service
floor where autopsies are taking place along with the processing
of the deceased. They also wind up seeing deceased people in
our crypt,” Winter said.
“It’s to show them what reality is.”
(Adapted from: The Jakarta Post, January 21, 2008)
Main event
Background
events
Resource of
information

30
Reviews
Review is a text that shows the critique an artwork, event for a public audience.
Such works of art include movies, TV shows, books, plays, operas, recordings,
exhibitions, concerts, and ballets.
Text organization:
• Orientation, this stage places the work in its general and particular context,
often by comparing it with others of its kind or through an analog with a
non-art object or event.
• Interpretative recount, this stage summaries the plot and/or provides an
account of how the reviewed rendition of the work came into being (it is
optional, but if present, often recursive).
• Evaluative summation, this stage provides a kind of punch line, which sums
up the reviewer’s opinion of the art event as a whole, and that is optional.
Language features:
• Focus on particular participant;
• Direct expression of options through use of attitudinal epithets in nominal
groups, qualitative attributes and affective mental processes;
• The use of elaborating and extending clause and group complexes to package
the information;
• The use of metaphor language;
features.

31
One Child
Translated into Indonesian “Sheila: Cinta Yang Hilang”
Reaching out at someone can make a world of difference
on his or her future.
Torey L Hayden, she was a teacher who worked
with kids who are emotionally disturbed. She made a
big impact on a little girl named Sheila. A six-year-
old who was put into her class, because of her
disorder, and they thought that Torey could get
through to her. She did not listen to anyone. This
innocent little girl lived a hard life that no six years
old should have to go through. She grew up in
poverty and her mom abandoned her when she was
too little to understand. She was left with her alcoholic father who
always thought that spanking was the answer to everything. Kids
do not know how lucky they are to have parents who care about
them and their future, until they actually read this story.
A teacher who sacrifices a lot just to reach one child, Torey
Hayden could fit under that category. She inspires teacher to keep
on teaching. Even though they feel like giving up on their students,
because they feel like they cannot reach them. Torey Hayden is
faced with difficult decision, she could either stick with her
principles or change the way she handles things. If she changes the
way she handles things then she would have a higher chance of
reaching out to Sheila.
Orientation
Interpretative
recount

32
Have you ever put your whole heart into something and then
finally achieved it? In this book, the characters did the same. This
book is very inspiring. It sits up good examples, to have
compassion for other people, and you do not even have to know
the person, personally to care about their well fair. This book is
filled with many emotions; some parts of this book may make you
cry a little. When you read this book, you actually feel like you are
going through the same experience along with Sheila. It makes you
want to reach out to her, and let her know that everything is going
to be okay.
(Adapted from: www.buildingrainbows.com)
Evaluative
summation

33
Descriptive Texts
Descriptive text is usually used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of
a person, place, object, or event. Its social function is to describe a particular
person, place or thing.
Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develops an aspect of their work,
e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader
can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects, and more.
Text organization:
• Identification, this stage identifies phenomenon to be described.
• Description, this stage describes parts, qualities, and characteristic.
Language features:
• Focus on specific participants;
• The use of noun phrase;
• The use of attributive and identifying processes;
• Frequent use of epithets (adjective or adjective phrase) and classifier in
nominal groups;
• The use of linking verbs;
• Relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and
adverbs;
• Focuses and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main
purpose of the description;
• Sensory description—what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted;
• Strong development of the experience that “puts the reader there” focuses on
key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.
features.

34
Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls is a famous area of waterfalls. It is one of the
most beautiful natural wonders of North America. It is on the
Niagara River, about halfway between Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario. The Niagara River forms part of the border between
Canada and the United States. At Niagara Falls, Ontario,
Canada is on one side of the river, and the U.S. state of New
York is on the other side.
Niagara Falls really has two waterfalls. The Horseshoe
Falls are in Canada, and the American Falls are in the United
States.
The Niagara River drops into a steep gorge or canyon, at
the falls. Most of the water flows over the Horseshoe Falls. They
are not as high as the American Falls, but they are 2,600 feet
(792 meters) wide–about 0.5 mile (0.8 kilometer). The
American Falls are about 1,000 feet (305 meters) wide. Beyond
the falls are the Whirlpool Rapids. There, the powerful swirling
water has carved a bowl out of the rock.
At night, colored lights shine on the thundering falls.
About 10 million people visit Niagara Falls each year.
(Adapted from: The World Book Student Discovery
Encyclopedia)
Description
Identification

35
Advertisements
Advertisement is a text that is used to develop loyalty to a cause, person, or product.
Also, to tantalize, persuade, and invite, to circularize information; to promote an
event, product, cause, or person; to endorse a product over that of a competitor; to
correct actual or perceived misinformation; to generate good will; and to sell a
service or product. Features of advertisements:
• Uses concise language structures;
• Sometimes a third party is involved in sponsorship;
• Persuasive language—superlatives, comparisons with competitors;
• Abbreviated language and often abbreviations—the latter are often
specialized or technical terms;
• Extensive use of graphics—layout, color, type font and size, and visual
images;
• Often emphasize price, quality, reliability, new or current product;
• Often designed to appeal to a specific audience or to extend audience;
• Elements of urgency—limited availability, special offer, sale, discount;
• Other vocabulary: trademark, retail price, guarantee, warranty, special
conditions apply, and ingredients;
• Most include contact information;
• Radio and TV ads may include jingle or song, or printed ads will probably
include a logo of the product or company;
• Excellence or superiority is often claimed rather than proven or backed by
research;
• Asterisk often refers to the “fine print” and the conditions or limitations or
warnings;
• Size or duration varies;
• Usually linked to revenue;
• Often uses metaphors.

36
Examples of advertisements are billboards, fliers, circulars, pamphlets, poster
packaging, blurbs, TV and radio spots, inserts or notices in magazines and
newspapers.
Almanacs
Almanac is usually used to show organization of the year or a period of time; to
highlight specific dates or rhythms within a period; to provide information in a
quick and easily accessible form. Almanac is also a register or record of feast days, a
record of astronomical information, a record of genealogies and statistics, and a
book of reference material. Features of almanacs:
• Layout consistent within document;
• Layout will vary according to purpose and origin (e.g. some weeks will begin
on Monday, others Sunday);
• Cultural influences determine the length and format of time periods;
• Often linked to a culture or religion;
• Determines introduction or amendments of laws, taxes, or holidays;
• Information categorized in some by topic.
Examples of almanacs:
• A book or table that comprises a calendar of the year showing days, weeks,
and months;
• A table showing the rhythm of the sun and moon;
• A register or record of feast days;
• A record of astronomical information;
• A record of genealogies and statistics;
• A book of reference material.

37
Atlases
Atlas is a collection of maps, each with a specific focus. Atlas is usually used to show
location of a continent, country, or place within a country. Features of atlases:
• Maps may show outlines, regions, typography, resources, political divisions,
or the world;
• Scale;
• Abbreviations;
• Links or overlaps between maps;
• Table of content;
• Index with grid reference;
• Longitude and latitude;
• Symbols;
• Use of color or shading for relativity.
Autobiographies
Autobiography is a first person account (usually narrative) of all or part of one’s
life. Diaries, memoirs, journals, and personal letters are autobiographical items but
are not usually continuous narrative. Autobiography is usually used to share aspects
and incidents of one’s life through the printed word; to correct misinformation; to
reflect on one’s own life; to acknowledge those who have contributed to the
author’s life; and to explore a period of time. Features of autobiographies:
• Offers insights into the attributes, personalities, interests, and opinions of the
subject and of those close to the subject;
• Offers insights into the conditions and times in which the person lives/d;
• Usually continuous narrative;
• Often unreliable as a record of facts;

38
• May be based on memory, or on other people’s impressions and memories
rather than research or reference to factual records;
• First person;
• Usually some emotive and reflective language;
• Usually includes feelings and opinions;
• Usually highlights one’s better traits;
• Illustrations most likely to be photographs, grouped and presented in
signatures;
• Photographs usually grouped chronologically;
• May include flashbacks;
• Probably some direct and indirect speech;
• Index common;
• May have a ghostwriter;
• Chapter headings usually descriptive.
Biographies
Biography is a written account of a person’s life that focuses on character and
career or achievements. Biography is ideally an accurate history of a person’s life (as
perceived at that time) and a reflection of the time in place in which he/she lived.
Biography is used to highlight achievements; to dispel biased views; to publicize the
subject; to perpetuate the memory of a person or achievements; and to reflect on
aspects of historical interest. Features of biographies:
• Detail may include family background, childhood experiences, education,
personality traits, business ventures, comments by critics, contributions to
his or her field of work or interest and the effects of these;
• Usually well researched;

39
• Research base may include diaries, newspaper clippings, official documents,
subject’s letters and memos to or from others, memories of contemporaries,
personal knowledge;
• Illustrative material usually photographic;
• Photographs usually between signatures of book;
• Probably includes quotes or comments from other people;
• Usually shortcomings as well as virtues highlighted, or at least included;
• Usually organized chronologically;
• May be written while subject still alive or posthumously;
• Chapter headings usually descriptive.
Book Reports
Book report is a synopsis of a book, tailored for other potential readers, discussing
noticeable features and new insights. Book reports are usually used to summarize
reaction to a book, to influence other readers, and to promote or introduce a book.
Features of book reports:
Note: Differs from book review, as a report focuses mainly on what is objectively
observable. Format may be:
• Title and author;
• Characters, setting, and point of view or purpose;
• Brief synopsis of content;
• Comment on the theme or perspective;
• Quotations from book to support statements;
• Recommendation on appropriate readership.

40
Brochures
Brochure is single sheet, often folded, of promotional material advertising a
product attraction or event. Brochure is used to inform, invite, persuade, attraction,
market a product or event, and to create interest and good will. Features of
brochures:
• Symbols;
• Abbreviations;
• Directions;
• Color, font, type size and layout are important;
• Schedules and timetables;
• Language may vary within one brochure from concise and factual (especially
when giving information of price, responsibilities, reservations) to emotive
and persuasive descriptions using superlatives and making comparisons with
competitors;
• Vocabulary (guarantee, reservations, responsibility, warranty, location);
• Contact information—address, phone, fax, Internet;
• Illustrative material often includes photographs portraying best aspects of
subject and maps.
Look at the brochure on the next page. Pay attention to its features.

41
Cartoons
Cartoon is a pictorial reflection on a topical issue, event, or person; an illustrative
exaggeration of characteristics or issues. Cartoon is used to entertain through satire
or humor, to express an opinion, and to politically persuade. Features of cartoons:
• Captions are often dialog;
• Inferential reading of illustrative material and caption required;
• Assumes background knowledge;
• Caricatures depicting peculiarities or defects;
• Often engenders congenial rather than derisive laughter;
• Often topical and only of interest to specific group (e.g. local or where
characters or issue are known);
• Speech bubbles.

42
Classics
Classic is a work generally acknowledged as a model or example of a standard; a
work of highest class among others in similar form; a work, which has been a long-
standing favorite. Features of classics:
• Usually several or many editions;
• Abridged versions common;
• Book language;
• Originals of older classics had little illustration;
• What is perceived as a classic at one time, might not be at another;
• Several works originally labeled as classics have been criticized for
stereotyping.
Cinquains
Cinquain is a five-line stanza, usually unrhymed, with a set syllabic pattern.
Features:
• Pattern of syllables: two, four, six, eight, two;
• Content usually related to nature;
• A single glimpse.
Read the text on the next page. Pay attention to its features.

43
Listen...
With faint dry sound,
Like steps of passing ghosts,
The leaves, frost-crisp’d, break from the trees,
And fall.
(Written by Adalaide Crapsey)
Comics
Comic is a booklet or magazine containing one or more comic strips. Comics are
usually used to entertain through humor and to tell a story through pictures and
minimal dialog. Feature of comics:
• Dialog and text describing setting or time minimal;
• Main action carried through illustration;
• All text within frames;
• Speech bubbles;
• Inferential reading required;
• Sequence of dialog within frame often left to reader to decide;
• Characters often have their own series;
• Main distinction between issues is number and cover illustration rather than
title;
• Contractions and idioms;
• Characters known through speech and action (no descriptive text);
• Some comics have become classics;

44
Consumer Reports
Consumer report is evaluative surveys of goods and services for personal use rather
that those used for the production of other goods or services. It is usually used to
help potential buyers make an informed decision about a purchase; to maintain
standards; and to show how one product or service is viewed in relation to others
available. Features of consumer reports:
• Uses comparison and contrast and cause and effect;
• Rating system often present using numerals, stars, letters, percentages, or bar
graphs;
• Usually prepared by independent group;
• Criteria known to readers;
• Field testing, clinical research, and/or consumer surveys;
• Often rated against national or international standards;
• Usually include summary and recommendations for purchase or use;
• Present and objective and impersonal tone;
• Uses third person point of view;
• Includes headings, graphs, charts, tables;
• This may include personal testimonies presenting positive or negative
experiences.
Read the text below. Pay attention to its features.
Dear reader,
I have always been frustrated by how hard it is to get across
the many incredible health benefits of Consumer Reports on
Health in our mail offers. After going through some very
uplifting reader surveys, it finally dawned on me. Just show
people the product!

45
I hope you will see the value in this free sample edition. It
reflects the broad range of contemporary health issues, boiled
down to a dozen carefully organized pages written in a no-
nonsense style.
We present it in summarized form to be easiest for you to
consult, use, and save. However, the fact is, you get just as much
benefit from what is not in here. We evaluate and distill the
huge amounts of health news that floods the media.
A VALUABLE REFERENCE
We also consult with medical experts to help us sort
through the news, the product claims, the wide range of
opinions, and to decide what is safe, sensible, and best for your
health.
As you will often see, we encourage you to explore further
into the topics that we cover. You will often find one, or
multiple, web sites to visit, and clear references to who the
sources are for information and opinions.
If you are a saver—and On Health is something worth
saving—we make it easy to go back through the year and find
the month and page of articles by specific topics, from allergies
to weight control. Look at the back cover and you will see just
what I mean. It comes in handy when you want to get specific
information in a hurry.
The only thing that you cannot discover in this sample is
my column! Each month I use page 2 to address a timely subject
that I think you will find important.

46
YOUR FREE SAMPLE
That is it. I will stop pitching and let this free sample
edition speak for itself. I hope you decide you would like to get
more every month.
(Adapted from: Consumer Report On Health)
Diaries
Diary is a book marked and arranged in calendar order in which to note
appointments or keep a personal record of thoughts and activities. Diary is used to
record events or thoughts day by day; to distinct purposes—one as a planning
record of appointments and the other as reflective and personal record; for
reflective reading or planning or scheduling. Features:
• Arranged sequentially, day by day, and sometimes by shorter periods;
• Personal—often notes rather than complete sentences;
• Personal—emotive and descriptive language common;
• Personal—inner thoughts revealed;
• Appointments—usually only name and brief description of content;
• Abbreviations common;
• Personal diaries often for author’s use only;
• Appointments diary may be kept on behalf of someone else;
• Conventional punctuation and spelling often not important in personal
diaries.

47
Dictionaries
Dictionary is reference books, arranged alphabetically, listing words and their
meanings, alternative spellings, and parts of speech, and often origins and
pronunciation guides. Some dictionaries also use the word in a short sentence.
Another definition of dictionary is reference books, arranged alphabetically, giving
a word of similar meaning in another language, reference books listing words for
specific contexts or use—a biographical or mathematical dictionary, dictionary of
synonyms and antonyms, rhyming dictionary.
Dictionary is used to promote the correct or conventional use of language, to
provide a common understanding of the spelling, meanings, use, and derivation of
words. Features of dictionaries:
• Alphabetical listing with consistent format for each entry within style or that
edition;
• Parentheses;
• Abbreviations;
• Symbols;
• Pronunciation guide;
• Sounds and stress marks in pronunciation guide for each entry;
• Derivations of words;
• May include encyclopedic entries;
• Guide words;
• Use of type for importance (bold, italics);
• Variants, inflections, parts of speech, and grammatical information usually
included.

48
…
amnesty /´æmnəsti/ (pl –ies) general pardon, esp for
political offences
amoeba (US also ameba) /ə´mi:bə/ n (pl ~s or –ae /-bi:/)
very small living creature consisting of one cell
amok /ə´mɒk/ adv [IDM] run amok  RUN1
…
(Adapted from: Oxford Learners Pocket Dictionary)
Directions
Direction is procedural texts giving systematic instructions. Direction often uses to
direct action, give a sequence in order for something to be completed successfully,
and to set out rules or parameters. Features:
• Clarity is critical;
• Sequence is critical;
• Numbering of steps;
• Diagrams and figures are common;
• Layout—often space between steps;
• Sequence may be indicated by arrows, especially in diagrams or when layout
is not vertical;
• Few adjectives;
• Often on a sheet of paper within package.

49
Editorials
Editorial is a short persuasive essay, which expresses opinion or reaction to a news
story or topical event, an informative outline of contents in a magazine. It is usually
used to persuade others to have the same opinions as the editorial writer, to share
opinions, to force public officials to reconsider decisions or priorities, to suggest
alternative procedures, to influence readers, to bring current issues to the reader’s
attention, and to entertain. Features of editorials:
• Expresses opinion; sometimes biased;
• May be controversial;
• Anticipates counterarguments;
• Critical reading required for reader to make informed decision;
• Sometimes esoteric;
• May focus on negative;
• Consistent placement and length;
• Usually written by chief editor.
Editorial: Bali’s Example
Many Indonesians feel irritated when they find out that
Bali is often more famous than Indonesia abroad, with
foreigners even often asking funny question like, “Is Indonesia
part of Bali?”
Bali is one of the world’s top tourist destinations. How did
the tiny province with a population of about 3.34 million
become so attractive to global tourists?
Many provinces in this country believe they are more
exotic than Bali, but still they cannot compete in luring visitors,

50
as they can practically offer only the natural beauty of their
provinces, while Bali has moved far beyond geographical
richness alone.
When terrorists bombed Bali in 2002 and in 2005, there
was a global outpouring of sorrow and sympathy for the victims
and for the Balinese who had to endure severe suffering because
the terrorists’ barbaric acts.
Thursday (March 26) is a national holiday. Indonesia has
14 holidays this year, 12 of them are religious and tomorrow
Balinese Hindus’ have their turn with the observation of Nyepi
(Day of Silence) as part of the celebration to mark the Hindu
Saka New Year. This Day of Silence is when our Hindu
compatriots silently self reflect and contemplate the year past
and the year ahead.
For other Indonesians this is also the right time to honestly
acknowledge the great contribution the resort island makes not
just to our economy, but also more importantly to enriching
our culture and systems of values as a nation. We tend to take
Bali for granted, as we do with other provinces outside of Java.
While Balinese Hindus are preparing for the observation of
Nyepi, hopefully it is not regarded as offensive or ridiculous to
ask a tempting question: Will Bali remain as magnificent as
what it is now when Hinduism is not the largest religion there?
There is no intention at all to offend other religions; this
question is merely a matter of curiosity.
There is also no intention at all to say that Hinduism is
better than other religions. What we want to say is that Hindus
should have a central role in guiding Balinese people and that
the world would benefit from such guidance. Indonesians,

51
whatever their religion is, can learn a lot from the way and
values of our comrades, while Balinese Hindus can also learn
from other citizens of different religions to enrich Indonesia.
On Nyepi, the entire island of Bali will fall silent. The
Hindus will constrain from lighting any fires or lights, working,
traveling outside their family compound or partaking in any
recreational activities.
Although only about 2 percent of the whole Indonesian
population is Hindu, (mostly Balinese), their role and influence
reaches much further beyond the statistical facts.
Not just Indonesians, but the world love Bali. Tomorrow,
TV stations will report how deserted the island is, for one whole
day. On this day of religious celebration, we want to thank our
Balinese compatriots for their great contributions to our nation.
Through their daily deeds, they also give us concrete examples
of how to win the hearts and trust of the world.
(Adapted from: The Jakarta Post, March 25, 2009)
Encyclopedias
Encyclopedia is a book or collection of volumes containing brief articles or
information on various topics, often arranged alphabetically, dealing either with a
range of knowledge or with a specific focus. It is used to provide accessible
reference material, and to give facts about a topic. Features:
• Usually updated regularly, so editions are important;
• Preface to each edition noting reason for or summary of changes;
• Usually includes some illustrative material;
• Carefully researched;

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• Usually objective with little or no bias;
• Detailed index with key reference usually in bold;
• Abbreviations;
• Often in columns with guidewords.
Epics
Epic is a long narrative story or poem set in a remote time and place and about
heroic character/characters. It is used to present models of greatness of character, to
reflect values of a culture, and to comment on a social issue of the period. Features:
• Characters larger than life in strength, intellect, or bravery;
• Content important in history of a nation;
• Character reflects full range of virtues of the time;
• Many originally written in poetic form;
• Translations may lose rhythm and strength of emotion, bravery, or danger of
original;
• Many of the originals were sung or said to the accompaniment of a musical
instrument;
• Danger and a demonstration of physical strength common essential
elements.

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Hiawatha's Departure
from The Song of Hiawatha
by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
By the shore of Gitchie Gumee,
By the shining Big-Sea-Water,
At the doorway of his wigwam,
In the pleasant Summer morning,
Hiawatha stood and waited.
Essays
Essay is a short, no exhaustive composition where ideas on a single topic or theme
are explained or argued in an interesting manner. Types of essay are formal essays,
informal essays, biographical essays, photo essays, narrative essays, and question
responses. Essay is used to explain, explore, or argue ideas on a single topic.
Features of essays:
• Nearly always written in prose (note: photo essays);
• Maintains tight focus on topic;
• Most essays are relatively short;
• Follow clear organizational form;
• Directed toward a specific audience;
• May include cause and effect, analogies, opinion, persuasion, classification,
descriptions, reviews, comparison and contrast;
• Introductory sentence presents issue and perspective.

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Expository Texts
Expository text is explanatory writing, detailing or justifying information, ideas,
and opinions. In short form as essays, articles. In longer form: travel books,
research papers, informational texts. Expository is used to explain an idea, develop
a thought, and prove a point or fact. Its social function is to explain the what, when,
why or how of facts, ideas, and opinions. Features:
• Usually non-fiction;
• Tells how, where, when, why, which things happen or have happened or are
as they are;
• Tells what things are like—size, color, shape, texture;
• Tells what things can do—movement, use;
• Tells how many;
• Tells where things are found;
• Usually detailed and descriptive;
• Information organized logically;
• Systematic explanations or arguments;
• Often includes illustrative material, especially diagrams and tables;
• Longer expository texts usually have a table of contents and index and
descriptive headings;
• Many have a bibliography;
• Detailed reading is usually required.
Fables
Fable is a short and simple didactic story in prose or verse usually with animal
characters acting as humans. It also a traditional form of story related to proverbs
and folklore. Its social function is to demonstrate a moral.

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Text organization:
• Exposition, this includes the characters and the setting of the story.
• Rising action, events lead up to the inevitable conflict.
• Conflict, there is typically a unique struggle in the tale.
• Falling action, these events occur because of the rising action and the
resulting conflict.
• Moral, the lesson that is to be learned from the story.
Features:
• Anthropomorphic;
• Characters are impersonal—called by generic name;
• Characters represent aspects of human nature, e.g. sheep represents
innocence;
• Usually one two or three characters;
• Element of trickery as turning point;
• Usually one incident;
• More complex than often thought—conveying abstract truth in very few
words.
The Ox and the Frog
“Oh, Father,” said a little Frog to the big one sitting by the
side of a pool, “I have seen such a terrible monster! It was big as
a mountain, with horns on its head, and a long tail, and it had
hoofs divided in two.”
“Tush, child, tush,” said the old Frog, “that was only
Farmer White's Ox. It isn’t so big either; he may be a little bit

56
taller than I, but I could easily make myself quite as broad; just
you see.”
So he blew himself out, and blew himself out, and blew
himself out.
“Was he as big as that?” asked he.
“Oh, much bigger than that,” said the young Frog.
Again, the old one blew himself out, and asked the young
one if the Ox was as big as that.
“Bigger, Father, bigger,” was the reply.
So the Frog took a deep breath, and blew and blew and
blew, and swelled and swelled.
Then he said, “I’m sure the Ox is not as big as this.”
But at that moment he burst.
(Adapted from: www.allaboutfrogs.org)
Folk Tales
Folktale is a form of narrative that has been handed down, example: epics, fairy
tales, ballads, myths, legends, fables, and folk songs. Its purpose is to tell an
entertaining story, to reveal human nature; to instill cultural beliefs, values, and
practices; to explain natural and social phenomena; to kindle imagination; and to
discover universal qualities of humankind. Features:
• May not have been intended for children, but strong plot, quick action, and
identifiable structure have attracted children through ages and cultures;
• Usually reasonably short;
• Always end happily;

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• The “underdog” usually triumphs or good overcomes evil;
• Wishes come true as a result of a test or struggle;
• Contain an element of magic;
• Every culture has its own folklore reflecting its history and values;
• Identifiable structure;
• Action quickly reflects direct plot;
• Characters, setting, and problem revealed early;
• Characters often opposite in personality and appearance—usually several
adjectives to describe each character;
• Quick ending contains resolution—instant, painless death; lavish wedding
without apparent preparation;
• Repetition a basic element—repetition often related to number of characters;
• Three is a common element—characters, main episodes, attempts to solve
problems;
• Chants or repeated verses are common;
• Always set in yesteryear;
• Many versions of same tale—often adapted to a culture but also many
versions within a culture;
• The same theme is reflected in different tales in different cultures.
At the edge of a forest, stood a big tree. Its branches spread
out majestically and so did its roots. It shielded people from the
sun under its shady leaves, and provided shelter to countless
birds and other small creatures in its branches. It buzzed with
activity all the time.
At the foot of the tree grew a little plant. The plant was
willowy and delicate, and tended to keel over at the touch of the
slightest breeze.

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One day, the two neighbors were having a little talk.
“Well, little one,” said the tree to the plant, “why do you
not plant your feet deeply in the ground, and raise your head
boldly in the air as I do?”
“I see no need to do so,” whispered the plant with a smile.
“Actually, I think I may be safer this way.”
“Safer!” sneered to the tree. “Are you suggesting that
you’re safer than I am? Do you know how deep my roots are
buried, how thick and strong my trunk is? Even if two men hold
hands, they would not be able to surround my trunk. Who
could possibly pluck me by the roots or bow my head to the
ground?”
And the tree turned away from the plant in a great huff.
But the tree was to regret its words very soon. One evening
a great hurricane arose in the region. It hurled the trees off their
roots and almost completely destroyed the forest. It uprooted
the neem tree and hurled it away with great force.
When the storm had passed, the villagers living nearby
surveyed the damage. Mighty trees that had once almost
touched the sky were now reduced to stumps or worse. The
forest was littered with their carcasses.
But there was one exception, the little plant. The plant had
been tossed and turned under the fury of the hurricane, and
bent completely. But when the hurricane ended, it sighed and
stood upright again.
No trace remained of its mighty neighbor though.
(Adapted from: www.pitara.com)

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Haiku
Haiku is a lyrical poem, with a definite structure, that focuses on a single moment.
Features:
• English: seventeen syllables arranged in three lines of five, seven, and five
syllables;
• Creates clear images;
• Written in present tense;
• Focuses on natural object or scene;
• First part focuses on some aspect of nature and the second on the engendered
mood or emotion;
• Often relates to seasons;
• Evokes emotion;
• Reader needs to add context and often create the setting.
As the wind does blow
Across the trees, I see the
Buds blooming in
I walk across sand
And find myself blistering
In the hot, hot heat
Falling to the ground,
I watch a leaf settle down
In a bed of brown.
It’s cold—and I wait
For someone to shelter me

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And take me from here.
I hear crackling
Crunch, of today’s new found day
And know it won’t last
So I will leave it
At bay; and hope for the best
This bitter new day.
Idioms
Idiom is ways in which words are commonly combined, ways in which a specific or
identifiable group combine words in a particular context. Features:
• The meaning may not be predictable from individual words in the
expression;
• Difficult to translate because of unique syntax;
• The context and the user often define the meaning.
Example of idioms:
“The job that you are offering me sounds really good, but I
would like to sleep on it before giving you my final decision.”
Sleep on it means take at least a day to think about
something before making a decision.

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Informational Posters
Informational poster is usually used to convey a large amount of information in a
succinct and graphical form to a distant and fleeting audience, e.g. billboard.
Features:
• Appeals to a specific audience;
• May include slogan, logos, reference to public figures;
• Illustrations may include photographs of well-known people;
• Link with product may be obscure but causes tend to be overtly explicit;
• Graphics usually sell the message;
• Inferential reading a common requirement;
• Uses concise language;
• Often includes metaphors.
Interviews
Interview is usually magazine or newspaper articles set out in question-and-answer
format. Its function is to record conversations with or questioning of a person for a
specific purpose or audience, to obtain and share information about predetermined
topics through a question-and-answer session. Features:
• Little or no scene setting;
• Verbatim recording of questions and answers;
• Interviewee does not usually have opportunity to use reference material;
• Use of bold type, abbreviations, and colons in presentation;
• May include idioms, incomplete structures;
• Sidetracking is common.

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Journals
Journal is a scholarly periodical, a personal record of thoughts, impressions, and
events important for the present or as a plan for future reference or action. Journal
is used to provide a record of thoughts, experiences, dreams, memories, plans.
Features:
• Entries dated;
• Includes summaries, responses, and unanswered questions;
• Contains autobiographical information;
• First person;
• May be a mixture of tenses;
• Often focuses on what has been learned;
• Can be a source of ideas for writing or some action;
• Entries may be more spasmodic than in diaries;
• Entries may be more reflective of thoughts, impressions, and ideas than in a
diary.
Legends
Legend is narratives often part fact and part fiction about the life and deeds of a
famous hero or a saint, kept alive mainly through oral retellings, and stories about
heroes before the time of recorded history. Legend is used to explain a social
phenomenon, to focus on positive character traits, to present models of behavior
and ethics, and to use story to explain aspects of human nature. Features:
• Focuses on character traits, especially of strength and bravery;
• Often exaggerated accounts—some of the acts of heroism become more
exaggerated with each retelling;
• Many have historical basis;
• Many follow the pattern of traditional tales;

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• Often called hero myths;
• Often distinguished from myths in that they have humans rather than gods
as characters and they sometimes have a historical basis which myths do not
have;
• Many epics are based on legends.
Letters: Business Letters
Business letter is a part of correspondence between two parties, one of whom is part
of an organized body. Business letter is usually used to request or to respond to a
request, to express an opinion, to inform, to apply for a product, information, or a
position. Features:
• Lay out more details, and body of letter has more defined structure than that
of a personal letter;
• Full address of sender and recipient included;
• Structure includes purpose of letter and reference to any previous
correspondence on the same topic, explanation, and thanks which often
summarizes intended or decided action;
• Opinion often stated as fact;
• May include “Reference: Attention.”
• Recipient or writer may be acting on behalf of a group or committee;
• May include technical information specific to topic or specific item;
• If more than one item is being discussed, paragraphs are used;
• Might be numbered with subsection defined by letters;
• Letterheads.

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Letters: Functional Letters
Functional letter is a letters for a specific purpose, often “one-offs” such as
expressing condolence, thanks, or congratulations. Sometimes an open letter, such
as a letter to an editor intended for public readership.
Letters: Personal Letters
Personal letter is a written communication from one person to another,
traditionally sent in an envelope by post, but electronic mail is becoming more
common. It is used to maintain a relationship, and exchange records of incidents
and ideas of common interest. Features:
• Sequence may not be important;
• Idioms and natural language common elements;
• Some content probably of significance only to writer and main recipient;
• Often used in research for biographies or autobiographies;
• Address and date often abbreviated;
• Usually longer length than business or functional letters;
• Grammar and spelling are often not as closely checked as in other forms of
letters.
September 02, 2010
Dear Michelle,
Please accept my most sincere apology for my behavior last
week/yesterday. I have thought long and hard about what
happened and I realize how very upset/angry you must have
been.

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I am sorry for creating the situation, which I know I
should have handled better. I admit that I was in the wrong and
can only say how sorry I am. I can promise you that this will
never happen again and hope that you will give me the
opportunity to prove this to you.
I understand that it might be difficult for you to accept my
apology but hope that this letter will help. I will call you later
this week to apologize in person and hope that you will be able
to give me another chance.
Kind regards,
Jessica
Jessica Anastasia
Lists
List is a collection, often arranged vertically, of words or phrases with a common
theme. List is used to provide quick access to information with a common purpose
or focus, and to provide a quick reference for considering ideas or facts and their
relationships. Features:
• Often the result of individual or collective brainstorming;
• Usually same parts of speech within a list;
• May be reorganized into a logical sequence to form an outline or procedure;
• Bullets;
• May focus on main ideas;
• Can be a form of note taking.

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Magazines
Magazine is a collection of items published for a specific audience or promotes a
cause. Magazine is also a volume or issue with a consistent format and approach.
Magazine is used to provide short reads on a variety of subjects or different aspects
or views of a single topic or theme within one publication and to pursue a topic or
issue on a regular basis. It is also used to update information, to inform readers of
the lives of famous people, to provide the views of several people, and to develop
loyalty to a product or cause. Features:
• Light and easy to handle;
• Often free or cheap;
• Offers detailed reading or content for “dipping and delving.”
• May be biased or emphasize a perspective;
• Each issue may vary according to focus and contributors;
• Cover gives information of main topics or the focus;
• Usually wide range of graphics within an issue;
• Columns;
• Range of type;
• Technical or specialized vocabulary;
• Items may be continued from one issue to another;
• Contents may include: cover information—publication date, issue, volume,
key topics or theme, table of contents, publication staff, publication
information, subscription information, editorial reviews, letters to the editor,
profiles, articles, advertisements, achievements and milestones, forthcoming
events or issues, latest news or research, interviews, articles, regular features
(puzzles, recipes, snippets, reports).
Magazine Articles

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Magazine article is a short text within a collection, often a stand-alone item within
the collection, by either form or content. It is used to explain, inform, express
opinion, report, and to engender interest or response. Features:
• Usually topical or current and linked to focus of magazine;
• May be by regular contributor to magazine;
• May be a one-off topic;
• Often biased.
Manuals
Manual is a procedural text links between manufacturer and consumer, a factual
and descriptive explanation of how, what, when, and why. It is also known as
handbook. It is used to guide or direct action, to explain the components and/or
operation of a product, or to explain how materials or equipment can be used or
repaired. Features:
• Usually includes technical or specialized language;
• Diagrams are usually labeled and referenced from text;
• Diagrams often show sequence, are cut away to show inner components, or
just label components;
• Requires detailed reading, though tendency is often to skim or refer to
diagrams first;
• Often uses bold or italic type and framed sections;
• Chapter summaries often in note form at beginning of chapter;
• Detailed index and often a troubleshooting section;
• Often subsections within table of contents;
• Appendices may include specifications;
• Authorized service agents.

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Memos (Memoranda)
Memo is a formal or informal letter, note, or written message, usually between
departments or branches of a business, of something that needs to be remembered
or enacted. It is used to inform of past or intended action or to direct action.
Features:
• Heading includes To, From, Date, and Subject. Others receiving a copy for
information;
• Formal memos are often copied to supervisor of both writer and recipient;
• May be reporting on conversations or reminding of agreed action;
• Printed form or e-mail may determine format;
• Usually written like a business letter with main idea in first paragraph
followed by necessary details and indication of required response or action;
• Copy kept by sender;
• Often includes file reference.
To: Andy Andler, Benita Buchanan, Charles Chavez
CC: Darcy Danko
From: Heady the Head Honcho
Date: June 1, 2006
Re: Need for New Memo Format
I have noticed that we do not seem to be able to
communicate important changes, requirements, and progress
reports throughout the company as effectively as we should. I
propose developing one consistent memo format, recognizable

69
by all staff as the official means of communicating company
directives.
While I know this seems like a simple solution, I believe it
will cut down on needless e-mail, improve universal
communication, and allow the staff to save necessary
information for later referral.
Please talk among yourselves to determine the proper
points of memo writing and return the input to me by 12 noon.
I will then send out a notice to the entire staff regarding the new
memo format.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this.
Memoirs
Memoir is form of autobiography. Usually focuses on a single period in author’s life
and on notable people known to author, may be selected from longer or more
detailed recordings of events and thoughts. Features:
• First person;
• Narrative;
• May be selected diary or journal entries or letters to a close friend or family
member or selections from official documents;
• Usually focus on the implications of a major event in the author’s life or a
specific historical period;
• Usually little illustrative material;
• Often very descriptive with attention to detail of places or emotions;
• Sometimes strong characterization of third party through detailed
description of actions, speech, or physical attributes.

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Minutes
Minutes are a secretary’s documentation of decisions, reports, queries,
recommendations, financial matters, and intended action discussed at a meeting of
people with a similar interest or duty. It is used to provide a record of the official
business of a meeting. Features:
Consistent format that will include:
• Date, time, and place of meeting;
• Name of person who calls meeting to order;
• List or number of those present;
• List or number of absent members;
• Indication of reading and acceptance or amendment of minutes of previous
meeting;
• Listing and/or summary of committee reports and actions;
• List of unfinished business;
• Record of new appointments;
• Explanation of any business transacted, including names of proposer and
secondary of motions, and any actions taken;
• List of forthcoming events or business;
• Date, time, and place of next meeting;
• Time of adjournment;
• Secretary’s signature.
Myths
Myth is an anonymous narrative that explains the origins of life and elements of
nature, a fictional story containing a deeper truth, a fictitious tale kept alive mainly
through oral tradition. In literary sense, “myth” does not mean untrue but a

71
generalized understanding or belief. It is used to explain aspects of life, culture, and
nature, and origins. Features:
• Characters are supernatural beings or elements of nature personified;
• Many follow the pattern of traditional stories;
• Short stories that contain action and suspense;
• Every culture has its own collection of myths as well as a universal bank of
myths;
• Each culture has its own creation and nature myths—the former about how
the world began and the sun and moon got in the sky, and the latter
explaining seasonal changes, movements of the sun and earth, animal
characteristics.
Narratives
Narrative is the record of a series of factual or fictional events in which the linking
of the events gives a sequence and shape to the telling. It is used to entertain, enable
the reader to enjoy experiences vicariously and record experiences. Features:
• Realistic, humorous, fantasy, historical, science fiction;
• Structures familiar in narratives for beginning readers include cumulative,
interlocking or chain (ab, bc, cd, ... ), common sequences, rhyme, repetition,
and time sequence;
• An identifiable problem or tension which gives shape to the plot:
 Beginning—introduction of characters, setting, and problem;
 Middle—development and elaboration of problem or tension,
introduction of other elements;
 Conclusion—resolution or acceptance of inevitable.
• Characters, mood, tension, strength of story line, and setting are interwoven
and interdependent elements;
• Often rely on sensory details for impact.

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Newspapers
Newspaper is a collection of topical news reports, articles, notices, and
advertisements published daily or weekly on folded sheets of paper. Its function is
to inform readers of international, national, and local events, services, and
opportunities. Features:
• May have a specific focus or bias;
• Main components: articles, reports, editorial, advertisements, classified
advertisements, public notices, personal messages, obituaries, classified
index, special features;
• Subsections may include entertainment opportunities; obituaries, births, and
marriages; houses, land, vehicles, products for sale; employment
opportunities; financial and transport information; tourism information;
reports of meetings; legislation; sports;
• Larger newspapers divided into regular sections, many with a daily feature
section;
• Layout consistent from one issue to another;
• Some newspapers in large cities may have more than one edition per day;
• Layout usually in columns with headlines often spreading across columns;
• Majority of each paper, and all of some, are in black and white on newsprint
paper;
• Usually have regular readership; home delivery still common;
• Preparation time for each issue is very short—usually less than 24-hour
turnaround, giving sense of urgency for staff and immediacy for reader;
• Many people will work on one item in a short time prior to publication,
including reporter, editor, subeditor, typesetter, proofreader, designer;
• Variety of typefaces and sizes within one issue.

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Newspaper Articles
Newspaper article has two main categories: news article that provides a record of
what happened or what was said and a feature article that offers opinion or focuses
on the human aspect. It is used to provide information or opinion about a current
topic or issue. Features:
• News articles usually written by journalists or publicity personnel for an
organization or business;
• Key or topic sentence is important as editing for space limitations may cut
some of the subsequent details or explanations;
• Includes who, what, where, when, why, and how;
• Details are added in order of importance;
• News articles should report events factually and objectively, whereas feature
articles often include opinion, judgment, and assumptions;
• Follows standard rules of grammar, punctuation, and format;
• Feature articles usually include background information.
Novels
Novel is a lengthy fictional narrative in prose form, presenting incidents,
characters, and a setting shaped in a sequence or plot, e.g. detective story, romantic
novel, historical novel, science fiction, and contemporary. It is used to entertain,
cause reflection on one’s own life, live vicariously, provoke emotion, and encourage
thought. Features:
• Although the work is fictional, the author presents the characters, incidents,
and settings as realistically as possible;
• Most widely read form of literature;
• Usually long enough to be a publication by itself;

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• Relationships and their changing nature are usually essential elements in a
novel;
• Usually no table of contents;
• Chapter headings usually numbered rather than titled;
• Plot is presented through thought, action, and speech of characters;
• Each type of novel has its own features. For example, historical novels: setting
gains greater importance—clothing, transport, social protocol, houses must
all reflect time and place. Dialog may include unusual structures or phrases
or words may have a different meaning requiring the reader to make greater
use of context and perhaps employ read-on strategies. May require extra
background knowledge or extra attention to detail if reading is not to be
interrupted. Researching usually past tense—if not, the reader will have to
remember setting and time to cope with actions and dialog.
Novelette
Novelette is a long short story, a work of fiction longer than a short story but
shorter than a novel, often used negatively to describe sentimental romances,
stories, or thrillers.
Novella
Novella is a fictional narrative presenting a single event or conflict with a surprise
element signaling the turning point.

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Parables
Parable is a short and simple story with a moral, an allegory that parallels the
situation to which it is being applied. It is used to teach a lesson through something
or someone’s experiences, and present an abstract idea through credible and
everyday situations. Features:
• Action and consequence are key to the form;
• Comparisons between characters are usually important;
• Usually more than one incident;
• Moral may be presented in character’s dialog or thought at end of parable.
Plays
Play is a dramatic work written in dialog for presentation by more than one player.
It is used to entertain or to provoke thought and emotion, to present a visual and
aural experience for the audience and a participatory one for the players. Features:
• Characters listed at beginning, usually in order of appearance;
• Character listing usually includes very brief description of age, appearance,
role in play, or relationship to other characters;
• Major division of longer plays is acts which are divided into scenes;
• Setting for each scene is given in italics at beginning of text for scene;
• Stage directions usually in italics and square brackets at appropriate place in
script, and set in middle of page;
• Lines and sections are sometimes numbered on left hand side of page as a
reference aid;
• Within dialog, actor’s name usually in bold, even capitals.

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Poems
Poem is a language composed according to a pattern of beat and melody of words, a
work of verse, which may be in rhyme or in blank verse or a combination of the
two, in which the words are linked and interdependent through sense and rhythm.
Poem is used to create images through the rhyme and rhythm of language, to
express thoughts and feelings through lyrical language, to cause reflection on the
essence of an object, thought, observation or experience, to broaden or intensify the
reader’s experiences and understandings. Features:
• Varies in length from a few lines to book-length epics;
• Three main categories of poems—narrative, dramatic, and lyrical—and many
subcategories within each;
• Every word is chosen for its sound as well as meaning and function;
• Meter and rhythm, and sometimes rhyme, determines line length;
• Relies on imagery to stimulate reader’s thought and view of a larger message;
• The images created by the syntax, rhythm and context bring a poem to life;
• Usually more condensed than prose or everyday speech;
• Frequent and elaborate use of figures of speech, especially similes and
metaphors or techniques for comparing and contrasting;
• Every culture has its own poetry and it is often associated with rituals or
festivities or seasonal activities;
• Often focuses on intensity of emotion or observation;
• Often departs from usual word order or pronunciation or uses archaic words
or creates new ones;
• Much of the meaning is conveyed by suggestion or by omission;
• Often includes words with multiple meanings, making every word count
more than once;
• Reader needs to read and think beyond the superficial;
• Poems are difficult to paraphrase;
• Sometimes the rhythm of the language and the pattern of the lines reflect the
mood of the content;

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• Alliteration and assonance may complement or even replace the rhyme;
• Repetition is a common element—repetition of sounds, words, lines, phrases,
images;
• Layout is important and often controls the pace and style of reading;
• Usually past or present tense;
• Often in first person or character anonymous;
• Uses unconventional punctuation and line breaks to convey meaning or to
show relationships between ideas.
Be glad your nose is on your face,
not pasted on some other place,
for if it were where it is not,
you might dislike your nose a lot.
Imagine if your precious nose
were sandwiched in between your toes,
that clearly would not be a treat,
for you'd be forced to smell your feet.
Your nose would be a source of dread
were it attached atop your head,
it soon would drive you to despair,
forever tickled by your hair.
Within your ear, your nose would be
an absolute catastrophe,
for when you were obliged to sneeze,
your brain would rattle from the breeze.
Your nose, instead, through thick and thin,
remains between your eyes and chin,

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