this the whole chapter notes of class 12 chapter 10 by Poonam Bathija pgt of KGP school

1. Chapter - 10
Haloalkanes and haloarenes

2. • The monohalogen derivatives of alkanes are
called alkyl halides. Their names are
derived by naming the attached alkyl group
to halogen and adding the name of the
halide. For example

3. 4.1.1 Classification of Halogen
Primary haloalkane Secondary haloalkane Tertiary haloalkane
;
Example Example Example
10
20 20
20
30

5. IUPAC Naming :
• Here, the monohalogen derivatives of
alkanes are named as haloalkanes.
The position of the halogen atom and
other substituents (alkyl groups) are
indicated by suitable numbers i.e.,
1,2,3.....etc.

6. Common naming : Alkyl halide

8. Haloarenes or aryl halides are named
by adding the prefix 'halo' (fluoro,
chloro, bromo, iodo) before the name
of the aromatic hydrocarbon. In case of
di-substituted compounds, the relative
positions of the substituents 1,2; 1,3
and 1,4 are indicated by the prefixes
ortho (o-), meta (m-) and para (p-)
respectively
Haloarenes

15. Nature of C-X Bond
C-F Bond length increases
C-Cl Bond enthalpy decreases
C-Br Stability decreases
C-I Reactivity increases
expected dipole moment of C-F>C-Cl
actual dipole moment of C-F<C-Cl
REASON- as D.M. is product of charge and
distance. In C-F although charge is high but the
distance between charges is less

16. Methods of preparation of haloalkanes
From Alcohols:

17.  Thionyl chloride is preferred because the other two
products are escapable gases.
The order of reactivity of alcohols with a given halo acid
is 3°>2°>1°. So The reactions of primary and secondary
alcohols with HX require the presence of a catalyst, ZnCl2.
With tertiary alcohols, the reaction is conducted by simply
shaking with concentrated HCl at room temperature.
The above method is not applicable for the preparation of
aryl halides because the carbon-oxygen bond in phenols
has a partial double bond character and is difficult to break
.
Good yields of R—I may be obtained by heating alcohols
with sodium or potassium iodide in 95% phosphoric acid.
H2SO4 can't be used as
KI + H3PO4 HI + KH2PO4
KI + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HI
It is an oxidizing agent so it will oxidize the HI formed in the
reaction

18. Methods of preparation of haloalkanes
From Hydrocarbons:
1)
It follows free radical mechanism

27. Physical Properties
1. Colour , physical state and odour—
• Colourless in pure state but develop colour when
exposed in air.
• lower members are gases but higher members
are liquid and solids.
most have pleasant smell.
2. Melting point, boiling point
•The stronger intermolecular forces of attraction are due to dipole-
dipole and van der Waals interaction. Hence, the boiling points of
derivatives of chlorides, bromides, and iodides are comparatively
higher the hydrocarbons of the similar molecular mass.
•The order of the boiling point of alkyl halides are RI > RBr >
RCl > RF
• As the branching increases the molecule forms sort of a
spherical shape resulting in the decrease in the area of contact
and forming weaker intermolecular forces.

28. •The melting point is based on the strength of the lattice structure
of a compound. Isomeric dihalobenzenes have almost similar
boiling points but the difference can be seen in the melting points.
Para-isomer have a higher melting point in comparison to ortho-
isomer and meta-isomer of the same compound.
•It is because para-isomers have highly compact crystal lattice in
comparison to ortho-isomer and meta-isomer. Therefore, higher
numbers of molecules are packed compactly in the crystal lattice.
Hence, higher energy is required to break the lattice structure
thereby increasing the melting point temperature of the
compound.

29. Bromo, iodo and polychloro derivatives of hydrocarbons are
heavier than water.
The haloalkanes are only very slightly soluble in water. In order for a
haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome the
attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules. Less energy is released when new
attractions are set up between the haloalkane and the water molecules
as these are not as strong as the original hydrogen bonds in water. As a
result, the solubility of haloalkanes in water is low. However, haloalkanes
tend to dissolve in organic solvents because the new intermolecular
attractions between haloalkanes and solvent molecules have much the
same strength as the ones being broken in the separate haloalkane and
solvent molecules.

30. Nucleophilic substitution reactions

31. The halide ions are substituted only
if the attacking nucleophile is
stronger. As the halide ion itself is a
very weak nucleophile, the
attacking nucleophile should be
stronger than it. The order of
reactivity of various alkyl halides
towards nucleophilic substitution
is:
RI > RBr > RCl > RF

32. S 1 reaction (substitutionN
nucleophilic, first order).

33. The first step is slow and is the rate-determining step. As the
nucleophile (Z-) is not involved in the rate-determining step, the
reaction depends only upon the concentration of alkyl halide (RX)
and is, therefore, a first order reaction.
Rate = k [RX]
The order of reactivity depends upon the stability of
carbonium ion formed in the first step. Since the 3°
carbonium ion is most stable, the ionization of tertiary alkyl
Nhalide is favored. The order of reactivity for S 1 reactionis,
tertiary > secondary > primary

35. Here, the rate of reaction depends upon the concentration of
both the alkyl halide and the nucleophile.
The transition state from tertiary alkyl halide is less stable due
to steric hindrance i.e., crowding of bulky groups. The order
of reactivity is: primary > secondary > tertiary.
Nucleophilic reactions of haloalkanes

36. 2.Replacement by alkoxy group
(Formation of ethers) - Williamson Synthesis

37. 3.Substitution by cyano group

38. 4.Substitution by isocyanide
group

39. CN is an ambidentate nucleophile
cyanide group is a hybrid of two contributing
structures and therefore can act as a nucleophile
in two different ways [-C≡N ↔ :C=N-], i.e., linking
through carbon atom resulting in alkyl cyanides
and through nitrogen atom leading to
isocyanides.
KCN is predominantly ionic and provides cyanide
ions in solution. Although both carbon and
nitrogen atoms are in a position to donate
electron pairs, the attack takes place mainly
through carbon atom and not through nitrogen
atom since C—C bond is more stable than C—N
bond. However, AgCN is mainly covalent in
nature and nitrogen is free
to donate electron pair forming isocyanide as the
main product.

40. 5.Substitution by nitrite group

41. 6.Substitution by nitro group

42. • Nitrite ion also represents an ambident
nucleophile with two different points of linkage [–
O—N=O]. The linkage through oxygen results in
alkyl nitrites while through nitrogen atom, it leads
to nitroalkanes.
• KNO2 is an ionic compound which releases nitrite
ions which can link with either O or N. as N is
better nucleophile so it results into Nitro
derivatives.
• AgNO2 is a covalent compound which has only O
as donor so it results into alkyl nitrites.

43. 7.Substitution by amino group
(formation of amines)

45. 8.Substitution by carboxyl
group (formation of esters)

46. We can sum up the order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards
SN1 and SN2 reactions as follows:
For the same reasons, allylic and benzylic halides show high
reactivity towards the SN1 reaction. The carbocation thus formed
gets stabilised through resonance (Unit 12, Class XI) as shown
below.
For a given alkyl group, the reactivity of the halide, R-X, follows
the same order in both the mechanisms R–I> R–Br>R–Cl>>R–F.

47. Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions
•Plane polarised light and optical activity: Certain compounds
rotate the plane polarised light (produced by passing ordinary
light through Nicol prism) when it is passed through their
solutions. Such compounds are called optically active
compounds. The angle by which the plane polarised light is
rotated is measured by an instrument called polarimeter. If the
compound rotates the plane polarised light to the right, i.e.,
clockwise direction, it is called dextrorotatory (Greek for right
rotating) or the d-form and is indicated by placing a positive (+)
sign before the degree of rotation. If the light is rotated towards
left (anticlockwise direction), the compound is said to be
laevorotatory or the l-form and a negative (–) sign is placed
before the degree of rotation. Such (+) and (–) isomers of a
compound are called optical isomers and the phenomenon is
termed as optical isomerism.

48. •Molecular asymmetry, chirality and enantiomers: If all the
substituents attached to that carbon are different, such a carbon
is called asymmetric carbon or stereocentre. The resulting
molecule would lack symmetry and is referred to as
asymmetric molecule. The asymmetry of the molecule is
responsible for the optical activity in such organic compounds.
•The objects which are nonsuperimposable on their mirror image
(like a pair of hands) are said to be chiral and this property is
known as chirality. While the objects, which are, superimposable
on their mirror images are called achiral.
•The stereoisomers related to each other as nonsuperimposable
mirror images are called enantiomers. Enantiomers possess
identical physical properties namely, melting point, boiling point,
solubility, refractive index, etc. They only differ with respect to the
rotation of plane polarised light. If one of the enantiomer is dextro
rotatory, the other will be laevo rotatory.

49. Racemic mixture : A mixture containing two enantiomers in equal
proportions will have zero optical rotation, as the rotation due to
one isomer will be cancelled by the rotation due to the other
isomer. Such a mixture is known as racemic mixture or racemic
modification. A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl or
[+] before the name, The process of conversion of enantiomer
into a racemic mixture is known as racemisation.
Retention: Retention of configuration is the preservation of integrity
of the spatial arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during
a chemical reaction or transformation.
Inversion, retention and racemisation:
-

50. Stereochemistry of the SN1 reaction
Ionization of optically pure alkyl halide molecule leads to the
planar, achiral (symmetrical) carbocation with an empty p-orbital
perpendicular to the plane. Addition of nucleophile can take place
at both sides of the carbocation with equal ease owing to the
symmetry of carbocation, resulting in a racemic mixture (equal
amounts of R and S products). But in actual practice, depending on
the nature of substrate, solvent and leaving group, there may be a
preferred side for its attack by nucleophile, in which case the
product will contain unequal amounts of the two enantiomers,
yielding partially optically active product.

51. Stereochemistry of SN2 reaction
Most of the SN2 reactions proceed with complete inversion of
configuration of the substrate. The observation of inversion in SN2
reaction means that the nucleophile (incoming group) must be
approaching the substrate from the side opposite (back-side) to the
group being displaced (leaving group). Such an attack will flip the
other three groups from one side of the carbon atom to the other.
This process is known as Walden inversion and produces a product
of the opposite configuration.
5

52. Elimination reactions
When a haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic
solution of potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen
atom from β-carbon and a halogen atom from the α-carbon atom.
As a result, an alkene is formed as a product. Since β-hydrogen
atom is involved in elimination, it is often called β-elimination.
Saytzeff rule
In dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that
alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to
the doubly bonded carbon atoms.” Thus, 2-bromopentane gives
pent-2-ene as the major product.

53. Elimination of HBr from Haloalkanes
An elimination reaction is one where a small molecule is
removed from the reactant molecule.
Substitution OH- + C2H5Br  C2H5OH + Br-
Elimination OH- + C2H5Br  C2H4 + H2O + Br-
Which reaction occurs depends on the reacting conditions.

54. Elimination or Substitution?

55. Reaction with metals
Grignard reagents are highly reactive and react with any source
of proton to give hydrocarbons. Even water, alcohols, amines are
sufficiently acidic to convert them to corresponding hydrocarbons.
It is therefore necessary to avoid even traces of moisture from a
Grignard reagent.
Wurtz reaction
Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons
containing double the number of carbon atoms present in the
halide. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction.

56. Reactions of Haloarenes
Nucleophilic substitution
Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reactions due to the following reasons:
(i) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on
halogen atom are in conjugation with π-electrons of the ring and
the following resonating structures are possible.
(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C—X
bond
The sp2 hybridised carbon with a greater s-character is more
electronegative and can hold the electron pair of C—X bond
more tightly than sp3-hybridised carbon in haloalkane with
less s-chararcter

57. (iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl
cation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised
by resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled out.
(iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the
electron rich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes.

58. Replacement by hydroxyl group
The presence of an electron withdrawing group (-NO2) at ortho-
and para-positions increases the reactivity of haloarenes.

59. The effect is pronounced when (-NO2) group is introduced at
orthoand para- positions. However, no effect on reactivity of
haloarenes is observed by the presence of electron withdrawing
group at meta-position. Mechanism of the reaction is as depicted:

60. 2. Electrophilic substitution reactions :Halogen atom besides
being slightly deactivating is o, pdirecting; therefore, further
substitution occurs at ortho- and parapositions with respect to the
halogen atom.
Due to resonance, the electron density increases more at ortho-
and para-positions than at meta-positions. Further, the halogen
atom because of its –I effect has some tendency to withdraw
electrons from the benzene ring. As a result, the ring gets
somewhat deactivated as compared to benzene and hence the
electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly
and require more drastic conditions as compared to those in
benzene.

64. Dichloromethane (Methylene chloride) : used as a solvent as a paint remover, as a
propellant in aerosols, and as a process solvent in the manufacture of drugs.
Higher levels of methylene chloride in air cause
dizziness, nausea, tingling and numbness in the fingers and toes. In humans, direct skin
contact with methylene chloride causes intense burning and mild redness of the skin.
Direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea.
Trichloromethane (Chloroform) : Chemically, chloroform is employed as a solvent for
fats, alkaloids,
iodine and other substances. The major use of chloroform today is in the production of
the freon refrigerant R-22. It was once used as a general anaesthetic in surgery but has
been replaced by less toxic, safer anaesthetics, such as ether.
Breathing about 900 parts of chloroform per million parts of air (900 parts per million) for
a short time can cause dizziness, fatigue, and headache. Chloroform is slowly oxidised
by air in the presence of light to an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride, also
known as phosgene. It is therefore stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely
filled so that air is kept out.
Polyhalogen Compounds

65. Triiodomethane (Iodoform) : It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic
properties are due to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself. Due to
its objectionable smell, it has been replaced by other formulations containing iodine.
Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachloride) : It is produced in large quantities for use
in the manufacture of refrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans.
There is some evidence that exposure to carbon tetrachloride causes liver cancer in
humans. The most common effects
are dizziness, light headedness, nausea and vomiting.
When carbon tetrachloride is released into the air, it rises to the atmosphere and
depletes the ozone layer.
Freons : The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively
known as freons. They are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive and
easily liquefiable gases. Freon 12 (CCl2F2) is one of the most common freons in
industrial use.
p,p’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT) : DDT, the first chlorinated organic
insecticides . Many species of insects developed resistance to DDT, and it was also
discovered to have a high toxicity towards fish. The use of DDT was banned in the
United States in 1973, although it is still in use in some other parts of the world.