Presentation made by B R Mani at the International Seminar on Mahabharata organized by Draupadi Trust in April 2012 at New Delhi. The presentation on excavations around Rajgir in Magadha combines old and more recent data, history, and information from the Mahabharata and Puranas.

1. Magadha and Mahabharata :
Archaeological Indications from Rajgir
Area
By
B.R.Mani

2. Magadha in Early Days
• In his map prepared for understanding the extent of Magadha,
Cunningham has shown its northern and southern areas
adjoining the land of the Kikatas who were non-Vedic ancient
tribes of the region.
• Tradition takes back the political excellence of Magadha to the
time of the Mahabharata War, sometimes in the middle of the
second millennium BC, if not earlier when it was under the rule of
Jarasandha.
• Archaeological evidence from many of the excavated sites of the
region suggest the beginning of culture in the neo-chalcolithic
times. Evidence from Chirand, Taradih, Sonpur, Chechar, Maner,
Oriup, Manjhi, Senuar etc. suggest cultural developments in
Anga-Magadha area at least in the second millennium BC.
• Recent excavations in and around Rajgir have further confirmed
existence of the earlier culture, making a bridge between tradition
and archaeology.

3. Magadha in Early Days

4. Rajgir (Ancient Girivraja or Rajagriha)
• Rajgir was known in ancient times with different names, such as
Vasumat in Ramayana , Barhadrathapura in Mahabharata and
Puranas and Girivraja in Mahabharata, besides Kusagrapura in
some Jaina and Buddhist texts. Girivraja was the most popular
name of the capital city in Mahabharata.
• The names of the surrounding hills are also found in Mahabharata,
Buddhist and Jaina texts.
• Some structures in Rajgir such as Jarasandha–ki-Baithak and
Jarasandha-ka Akhara are still connected with the name of
Jarasandha, the king of Magadha in the time of Mahabharata War.
• Buddhaghosha, a Pali commentator mentions two fortified parts of
city – inner and outer ( antarnagara and bahirnagara ), having 32
large and 64 smaller gates. The fortifications are still visible.
• The capital city lost its status in the time of Udayin (c. 459-443 BC)
when the capital was shifted to Pataliputra.

5. Rajgir

6. Rajgir
Jarasandh ki Baithak(Size
at surface 25m x 23.5m,
Top 24m x 21.50m,
maximum height 8.25m),
Rajgir
Jarasandh ka Akhara (dual
ground), Rajgir

7. The Tradition
• A.D. Pusalkar, in his Book IV (Historical Traditions) in the
R.C. Majumdar edited The Vedic Age (Bombay, 1971) has
described The Krishna Period (c. 1950-1400 B.C.) and the
Bharata War in C. 1400 B.C.
• Barhadratha dynasty ruled over the kingdom of Magadha
with its capital at Girivraja (Rajgir) at the time of the
Bharata War and Mahabharata describes legends
connected with the birth and also about the death of its
ruler Jarasandha who was son of Brihadratha.

8. The Story
• The two wives of Brihadratha gave birth to two halves of a boy
and horrified royal family threw them away. A female man-eating
demon named Jara picked them up and put them together to carry
them off. On their coming in contact a boy was formed and the
father gave him the name of Jarasandha, because he had been put
together by Jara.
• Jarasandha became an ardent worshipper of Lord Siva and
prevailed over many kings and married two of his daughters with
Kansa, the maternal uncle of Krishna. He attacked Krisna 18 times
but was often defeated. He
had many kings in captivity
who were freed when
Krishna went to his capital
along with Bhima and
Arjuna and got him killed by
Bhima.

9. The Tradition
• Jarasandha’s son Sahadeva became an ally of the Pandavas and
was killed in the war.
• Somadhi became king of Girivraja, at the foot of which Rajagriha
(modern Rajgir ) , the ancient capital of Magadha grew up.
Ripunjaya, the 21st in descent from Somadhi was the last ruler of
the dynasty, killed by his minister Pulika who installed his son
Pradyota on the throne.
• According to the Puranas, the dynasty of Pradyota ruled for five
generations covering a period of 138 years and was supplanted by
Sisunaga. Bimbisara (c. 543-491 BC)and his son Ajatasatru (c.
491-459 BC), the contemporaries of Buddha and Mahavira were
5th and 6th kings of the new dynasty.
• It is possible that many historical facts and genealogical details
have been wrongly jumbled together and placed in false
sequence. In spite of this, it is quite evident that there must have
been more than 25 generation of rule if not of 33 generations
between the Mahabharata War and the time of Buddha and
Mahavira which could be placed towards the second half of the
second millennium BC.

10. Rajgir : The Cyclopean Wall
• A. Ghosh says “ At a very early
stage in the life of the city the
natural defences were substantially
re-inforced by a fortification
consisting of a high rubble –wall
running at the top of all the hills,
with a circuit of about 25 miles and
the natural gaps between the hills
were utilised as gates in the
fortification. Inside the valley were
other defencive walls built in
different periods…..” (AI, No.7).
• Attributing constructions to
Jarasandha, it has been opined
“Such Cyclopean fortification walls
have been found in ancient Greece
(Mycenaean city and Tiryns) and
placed in the later half of 2nd
millennium B.C. (1400-1300 B.C.).”
Cyclopean wall near (S.C.Saran in Purabharati, Delhi,
southern gateway(Old Rajgir) 2006, Vol.1, p.27).

11. Rajgir
Construction of buildings
of new Rajagriha and its
fortification belong to the
time of Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru as also indicated
by literary texts.

12. Rajgir
Chariots’wheel
mark/impression
near Banganga
Pass, Rajgir
Sankh Lipi (Shell Script) near
the spot of Chariots’ wheel
mark/impression near Banganga
Pass , Rajgir

13. Rajgir Excavations : 1950
• A small scale excavation was carried out at Rajgir by A. Ghosh in 1950 ( Rajgir
1950, Ancient India, No.7, ASI,1951, pp.66-78).
• The cultural sequence as mentioned by A. Ghosh is as below –
Period I : earlier than the fifth century B.C.
Period II : fifth century B.C. (or earlier) to second century B.C.
Period III : first century B.C.
Period IV : first century A.D.
• Period I was characterised by about 1.20m deposit having rolled “rare sherds”,
burnt earth and charcoal pieces. Period II with a deposit of about 2.40m having
three phases is characterised by the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW).
• An interesting feature noticed in the limited excavation was the evidence of ten
post-cremation burials, previously unknown.
• The conventional date of NBPW believed by the excavator, needs revision in
view of the large number of scientifically determined dates from many recent
excavations and accordingly the chronological sequence could be pushed back to
several centuries.

16. Southern Gateway of New Rajgriha

17. Rajgir 1950

18. New Evidence of Early Cultures from Rajgir Area
• Habitational deposits from two of the recent excavatios in the Rajgir area by
the Excavation Branch, Patna of the Archaeological Survey of India have
indicated the beginning of culture in the area in the middle of the second
millennium BC.
• Both of these sites have yielded some sherds of Painted Grey Ware (PGW),
generally associated with the Mahabharata.
• These sites are –
1) Juafardih, near Nalanda (2006-07)
2) Ghorakatora, near Giryak in Rajgir (2007-08)

19. Juafardih
A potential Stupa Mound, with Pre-NBPW Remains in Nalanda excavated by ASI

20. Excavations at Juafardih
•Juaffardih at 2 km south-west of Nalanda has been
excavated during 2006-2007 by the Excavation Branch,
Patna (ASI) under S.C.Saran.
•The mound as identified by the author as a stupa in
2005-06 and after excavations has revealed remains of a
mud stupa of Mauryan period(c.3rd century BCE) which
was constructed in the last phase of the habitation of
Period II of the site, marked with the presence of
NBPW and other related ceramics lying over the layers
of chalcolithic habitational deposits.
• The excavator has identified it with Kulika, the place
of birth and nirvana of Mahamoggalana, desciple of
Lord Buddha.
• A rich deposit of 10.61m belonging to the Period II
(NBPW Period) having three phases has 4 C14 dates , as
857 BC,1002 BC, 1562 BC and 1259 BC, comparable to
early dates of NBPW from Ayodhya, Agiabir, Rajdhani,
Gotihwa and Jhusi.
•The single C14 date from the cultural deposit of Pre-
NBPW (Chalcolithic Period) is 1354 BC which has
been found to be consistent.

21. Juafardih Excavations 2006-07

22. Ghorakatora, Near Giriyak
•Ghorakatora (Lat.25 01’57”N; Long85
31’31”E) is located near Giriyak on the
bank of river Panchane in district
Nalanda .
•It is located about 19 Km south-east of
Nalanda . It is further located 8 Km east
of Rajgir.
•
•The mound- It is a massive one with an
area of 22.74 acres of land.
•It measures about 800 m X 500 m.
•The approximate height of the mound is
7 mtr.

23. Recent findings from the excavations at Ghorakatora
• The archaeology of Ghorakatora has pushed back the
chronology of Rajgir and its neighborhood to the stage of
emergence of the early farming as was done for Nalanda by
the findings at Jufardih.
• The site is located below the foothills of Giriyak, spread
between the flood plain of Panchane and Goithawan.
• The location of the site provides natural resources for metal
and minerals and stone, besides games of wild animals and
situation for agro-pastoral subsistence.
• The excavation has reported following sequence: early farming
stage of neolithic/chalcolithic nature; Iron age; NBPW
(Mauryan); Sung, Kushan; Gupta and Post Gupta denoting
assemblage of Pala period.
• From the post Gupta levels a number of storage jars have
been reported in situ suggesting surplus production of
agricultural produce and their storage and marketing.

24. Ghorakatora
Previous Archaeological works
•F. Buchanan (1811-12) for the first time noticed the mound .
•During the survey he had found a good number of Hindu and
Buddhist sculptures.
•He also referred to about a small square fort with bastions at the
corners , veneered with bricks.
•Major Kittoe in 1847 visited the site and described this mound as a
citadel which is parallelogram in shape.
•Broadley in 1872 mentioned it ruins of a fort.
• Alexander Cunningham in 1861-62 mentioned a small mud fort at
the centre of the mound. He further noticed several sculpture at the
northern end of the mound. One of which may be assignable to 11th
century A.D.
• John Marshall along with his team carried out archaeological
investigations in 1905-06 in some areas of Rajgir and A. Ghosh in
1950, but Ghorakatora was not investigated by them.
•K.K. Sharma in 1987 reported about NBPW, Grey ware, Black slipped
ware, Red ware, Glazed ware. He also observed the remains of the
brick structures having the brick jsize of 41x28x61 cms.

25. Ghorakatora
Recent Work: Excavations in 2007-08
Important finds are
• Remains of burnt bricks structures
• About a dozen of ring wells
• Pottery– Black and Red Ware
Black Slipped Ware
NBPW
Red ware
Shapes include – bowls , lipped bowls, vases with narrow mouth, spouted vases and basing.
• Antiquities – Terracotta beads of Areca nut shape and barrel shape.
Terracotta bangle pieces, sling balls, fragments of rattle.
Terracotta plaque of Sunga period.
The excavation was conducted by P. K. Mishra, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI, Patna
Circle and Excavation Branch –I
• Trenches were laid out by following the principles of Horizontal excavation.
• The mound was divided into grids, each measuring 10x10m.
• Altogether 24 numbers of trenches were excavated.
Tentative Chronology of the site
Period I : Chalcolithic culture (c1500 B.C.-800 B.C.)
Period II : NBPW Period (c800 B.C.-200 B.C.)
Period III : Sunga – Kushana Period (c-200B.C.-300 AD)
Period IV : Gupta & Post Gupta Period (300A.D. to 800A.D.)
Period V : Pala Period (c800 A.D. to 1200 A.D.)

26. Structure:
Chalcolithic Ghorakatora
• Period I representing 1.4m cultural deposit exposes remains of chalcolithic period resting on the natural soil.
• The structure are found from this level are wattle and daub structure. The people of that age were living in
huts made of reeds, frame and mud plaster over it. Finding of some burnt daubs revealed from excavation
substantiates the facts.
Pottery
Period I (1500B.C.to 800B.C.)-Ceramic assemblage of chalcolithic period in this sites classified as :
Black and Red ware
Black ware
Black slipped ware
Red ware
Black and Red ware pottery from excavations may be compared with that of Chirand (Dist. - Saran) and Sonpur (Dist-
Gaya). The fabric of this ware varies form coarse to fine variety. The types include dish-on- stand vases, bowls,
dish, basin, lipped basin, storage jar, handi with carination on the shoulder, long necked jar, suspended jars and
perforated basins.
The important shapes are vases, bowls, dish, lid cum bowls etc. Deep bowl, basin and dish are the common types in B& R
ware which belong to the Pre NBPW phase. Paintings have been observed in Red ware and Grey ware. The
painted motifs. Some of them are treated with Red slip. The fabric ranges from coarse to medium. The the types
include vases with narrow mouth vases with wide mouth, carrinated handis, bowls, Ramps, lids, basins and storage
Jars.
Antiquities
Polished stone celts.
Fragments of stone Quern
Pestle
Sling ball
Terracotta beads
Hop scotches
Wheel
Bone points
Fragments of copper Antimony rod

27. Ghorakatora
Brick wall with storage jars, B2 x I
Section facing east A4 x
IV

28. Ghorakatora Excavations

29. Ghorakatora
Stone celts (chalcolithic period)
Grains and charcoal recourse recovered
through floatation process (chalcolithic
period)

30. Ghorakatora
Burnt clay showing evidence of wattle &
daub structures, Chalcolotic period
Kauri

31. Chalcolithic
Ghorakatora
NBPW, Red Ware, Black-
and -red ware sherds

32. Chalcolithic Ghorakatora

33. Chalcolithic Ghorakatora
Storage jars, chalcolothic period
Terracotta objects, chalcolothic period

34. Ghorakatora

35. Ghorakatora

36. Historical Ghorakatora

37. Historical
Ghorakatora

38. Ghorakatora

39. To Sum up.....
• The event of Mahabharata War could be placed in the second half of
the second millennium BC as indicated by genealogical calculations as
well as archaeological evidence from Mahabharata related sites and
distribution of certain ceramics including Painted Grey Ware.
• The event is tentatively put around 1400 BC although another view
takes it back to about 3102 BC as per tradition of Yudhishthira era.
• Girivraja or Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) is mentioned as capital of
Magadha and ruled by Jarasandha at the time of the great war.
• Archaeological evidence from recent excavations in and around
Rajgir and other parts of Anga-Magadha region confirm cultural
activities in the middle of the second millennium BC and possibly
even earlier.

40. And finally.....
Detailed study in future at Rajgir is required to understand –
• The period of Cyclopean Wall and other fortifications and
structures
• The period of chariots’ wheel marks
• Tradition of female demons – Jara of Mahabharata and Hariti of
the time of the Buddha
• Tradition of naming of kings such as Brihadratha (the first of the
Barhadratha and the last of the Maurya dynasty
• Tradition of special archaeological evidence of perforated and
curiously made multi-spouted ritualistic jars at Maniyarmath
and post-cremation burials
• Nature of earlier settlements etc.