Education at a Glance is the authoritative source for information on the state of education around the world. It provides data on the structure, finances and performance of education systems across OECD countries and a number of partner economies. More than 100 charts and tables in this publication – as well as links to much more available on the educational database – provides key information on the output of educational institutions; the impact of learning across countries; access, participation and progression in education; the financial resources invested in education; and teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools.The 2019 edition includes a focus on tertiary education with new indicators on tertiary completion rates, doctoral graduates and their labour market outcomes, and on tertiary admission systems, as well as a dedicated chapter on the Sustainable Development Goal 4.

1. OECD Indicators 2019
Education at a Glance
Andreas Schleicher, Director for Education and Skills
Andreas.Schleicher@OECD.org

2. Tertiary attainment has expanded in the past decade Table A1.2
Trends in tertiary educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds, 2008 and 2018
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% 2008 2018

3. A bachelor’s degree is the most common level of
tertiary attainment, on average across OECD countries Figure A1.3
Distribution of 25-34 year-olds with tertiary education, by level of tertiary education (2018)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Korea
RussianFederation
Canada
Ireland
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Australia
Switzerland
UnitedKingdom
UnitedStates
Norway
Israel
Netherlands
Sweden
Belgium
Iceland
France
OECDaverage
NewZealand
Denmark
Spain
Estonia
Poland
EU23Average
Greece
Latvia
Finland
Slovenia
Austria
Argentina
SlovakRepublic
Portugal
Chile
CzechRepublic
Turkey
Germany
Hungary
Colombia
CostaRica
Italy
Mexico
Brazil
China
Indonesia
India
SouthAfrica
Doctoral or equivalent Master's or equivalent Bachelor's or equivalent Short-cycle tertiary
%

4. The employment value of different qualifications Figure A3.5
Employment rates of tertiary-educated younger adults, by levels of tertiary education (2018)
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Lithuania
Norway
UnitedKingdom
Netherlands
Iceland
Japan
Sweden
NewZealand
Switzerland
Latvia
Israel
Germany
Australia
Canada
Slovenia
Ireland
Belgium
RussianFederation
Brazil
UnitedStates
Indonesia
Chile
Finland
CostaRica
Poland
Portugal
Denmark
SouthAfrica
OECDAverage
Hungary
EU23Average
France
Colombia
Mexico
Estonia
Luxembourg
Austria
Spain
Argentina
CzechRepublic
Korea
Turkey
Greece
SlovakRepublic
Italy
Bachelor's or equivalent Short-cycle tertiary Master's or equivalent Doctoral or equivalent
%

5. The earnings value of different qualifications Figure A4.1
Relative earnings of tertiary-educated adults, by educational attainment (2017)
100
150
200
250
300
350
Bachelor's or equivalent Short-cycle tertiary Master's, doctoral or equivalentIndex
0
50
100
150
200
Short-cycle tertiary Bachelor's or equivalent Master's, doctoral or
equivalent
Germany United KingdomInde
x

6. Education matters

7. Those with tertiary education are less likely to be NEET Fig.A2.4
Percentage of NEETs (neither employed nor in education or training) among 25-29 year-olds, by educational attainment (2018)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Tertiary%

8. Tertiary-educated adults are more resilient against
long-term unemployment Figure A3.2
Percentage of long-term unemployed 25-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2018)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Tertiary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary Below upper secondary%

9. The relative earnings of tertiary-educated adults
increases with professional experience Figure A4.2
Relative earnings of tertiary-educated adults compared to those with upper secondary education, by age group (2017)
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
45-54 year-old workers 25-34 year-old workersIndex

10. In some countries, a significant share of tertiary-
educated adults are inactive Figure A3.3
Employment and inactivity rates of tertiary-educated 25-34 year-olds (2018)
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
%
Employment Inactivity

11. Tertiary graduates are more likely to keep improving
their skills through continuous adult learning Figure A7.1
Participation of 25-64 year-olds in education and training, by educational attainment(2016)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% Tertiary
Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary
Below upper secondary
Adult Education Survey (AES)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%
Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) or national surveys

12. Facilitating access to tertiary education

13. Governments fund a varying share of tertiary
expenditure in OECD countries Figure C3.2b
Distribution of public and private expenditure on tertiary educational institutions, final source of funds (2016)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
All private sources Expenditure from other private entities Household expenditure Public expenditure%

14. Grants or loans Figure C5.3
Distribution of students benefiting from public/government-guaranteed loans and scholarships/grants in bachelor's and master's long first degrees or equivalent (2017/18)
Note: Annual average (or most common) tuition fees charged by public institutions for national students at the bachelor's level are indicated in parenthesis (USD
converted using PPPs). The year of reference may differ across countries and economies. Please see Annex 3 for details.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Switzerland (1291)
Austria (921)
French Comm. (Belgium) (536)
Portugal (m)
Italy (1926)
Spain (1747)
Finland (0)
Chile (7524)
Canada (5286)
Denmark (0)
Australia (5034)
United States (8804)
New Zealand (4487)
Norway (0)
England (UK) (11866)
Sweden (0)
%
Do not benefit from public/government-guaranteed loans or scholarships/grants
Benefit from public/government-guaranteed loans only
Benefit from scholarships/grants only
Benefit from public/government-guaranteed loans and scholarships/grants

15. Fields in high demand still struggle to find the
skilled workers they need

16. Engineering and ICT graduates have the highest
employment rates… Figure A3.1
Employment rates of tertiary-educated adults, by field of study (2018)
OECD average
Iceland¹
Turkey¹
OECD average
Greece
Luxembourg
Turkey¹
OECD average
Iceland¹
Mexico Greece
Iceland¹
Turkey¹
OECD average
Lithuania
OECD average
Iceland¹
Luxembourg
Turkey¹
Greece
Iceland¹
Turkey¹
OECD average
Greece
Iceland¹
Turkey¹
OECD average
Costa Rica
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
%
Information and
communication
technologies
Engineering,
manufacturing
and construction
Natural sciences,
mathematics and
statistics
Health and
Welfare
Business,
administration
and law
Education Arts and humanities,
social sciences and
information

17. …and the highest earnings Figure A4.4
Relative earnings of tertiary-educated adults, by field of study (2017)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Engineering, manufacturing and construction Education
Information and communication technologies Business, administration and lawIndex

18. But the share of graduates from these fields has not
grown as fast as others Figure A1.a
Distribution of recent tertiary graduates by field of study, compared with fields of study of all tertiary-education 25-64 year-olds (2017 and 2018)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Business,
administration
and law
Arts and
humanities,
social sciences,
journalism and
information
Engineering,
manufacturing
and construction
Health and
welfare
Education Other fields Natural sciences,
mathematics and
statistics
Information and
communication
technologies
% 25-64 year-old adults (2018) Graduates (2017)

19. …in particular among those studying engineering,
manufacturing and construction Figure A1.b
Share of engineering, manufacturing and construction graduates among all tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds and recent graduates (2017 and 2018)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
%
25-64 year-old adults (2018) Graduates (2017)

20. Despite expanding access, progression through
tertiary education is uneven

21. Only 40% of students entering a bachelor’s programme
graduate within the theoretical duration, on average Figure B5.1a
Completion rate of full-time students who entered a bachelor's or equivalent programme (2017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
UnitedKingdom
Ireland
Lithuania
Israel
Canada
Norway
Finland
Sweden
France
Average
Switzerland
UnitedStates
Iceland
NewZealand
Australia
Estonia
Brazil
FlemishComm.(Belgium)
Portugal
Netherlands
FrenchComm.(Belgium)
Austria
Slovenia
Chile
%
Completion rate by the theoretical duration Completion rate by the theoretical duration plus three years

22. More tertiary students are studying abroad

23. The number of international students has more than
doubled in less than 20 years Figure B6.2
Growth in international or foreign enrolment in tertiary education worldwide (1998 to 2017)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
Millions of students OECD Non-OECD
Total, 5.3
Non-OECD, 1.6
OECD, 3.7

24. The share of international students has increased
since 2010 in most OECD countries Figure B6.1
Incoming student mobility in tertiary education in 2010 and 2017
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Luxembourg
Australia
NewZealand
UnitedKingdom
Switzerland
Austria
Canada
CzechRepublic
Netherlands
Denmark
France
Hungary
EU23Total
Ireland
Belgium
Germany
Estonia
Finland
Latvia
SlovakRepublic
Iceland
Sweden
Portugal
OECDTotal
Italy
UnitedStates
SaudiArabia
Lithuania
SouthAfrica
Poland
RussianFederation
Slovenia
Greece
Spain
Norway
Israel
Korea
Turkey
Mexico
Chile
China
Brazil
Colombia
India
% 2017 2010 (or closest available year)=47
=44

25. The share of international students grows with each
successive level of tertiary education Figure B6.3
Incoming student mobility in tertiary education, by level of study (2017)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Luxembourg
Australia
NewZealand
UnitedKingdom
Switzerland
Austria
Canada
CzechRepublic
Netherlands
Denmark
France
Hungary
EU23Total
Ireland
Belgium
Germany
Estonia
Finland
Latvia
SlovakRepublic
Iceland
Sweden
Portugal
OECDTotal
Italy
UnitedStates
SaudiArabia
Lithuania
SouthAfrica
Japan
Poland
RussianFederation
Slovenia
Greece
Spain
Norway
Israel
Argentina
Korea
Turkey
CostaRica
Mexico
Chile
China
Brazil
Colombia
India
Indonesia
% Bachelor’s or equivalent Master’s or equivalent Doctoral or equivalent=85
=76

26. Increased financial and human resources
have sustained the expansion of tertiary education

27. Spending has increased by 9% since 2010, three times more than
the increase in the number of tertiary students, on average
Index of change in total expenditure on tertiary educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2016)
Table C1.3
Col. 12,15 & 18
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Index (2010=100) Change in total expenditure Change in number of students Change in expenditure per student

28. About a third of total spending on tertiary institutions
is devoted to research and development, on average Figure C1.2b
Total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student by types of service (2016))
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
Total R&D Ancillary services Core servicesEquivalent USD

29. Gender affects participation in education
and employment, but in different ways

30. Women are over-represented in science at master’s
level, but under-represented at doctorate level Figure B7.4
Share of female graduates in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics at master's and doctoral levels (2017)
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Master's Doctorate

31. The employment advantage of a doctorate over a
master’s degree is greater for women than for men Figure B7.5
Relative employment rate of 25-64 year-old doctorate holders compared to master's holders (2018)
95%
100%
105%
110%
115%
120%
125%
Women Men

32. Tertiary-educated women earn less than men, even
among those who studied similar fields Figure A4.5
Women's earnings as a percentage of men's earnings, by field of study (2017)
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
All tertiary Education Business, administration and law ICT%
Women earn more than men
Women earn less than men

33. Lower earnings for tertiary-educated women results
in lower financial returns to their education Figure A5.1
Private net financial returns for a man or a woman attaining tertiary education (2016)
0
100 000
200 000
300 000
400 000
500 000
600 000
700 000
Luxembourg
UnitedStates
Chile
Ireland
Switzerland
Hungary
Israel
Poland
Austria
France
Germany
OECDAverage
Turkey
Canada
EU23Average
CzechRepublic
Slovenia
Korea
Australia
UnitedKingdom
SlovakRepublic
NewZealand
Finland
Netherlands
Denmark
Portugal
Spain
Norway
Italy
Belgium
Latvia
Estonia
Men WomenIn equivalent USD
converted using PPPs

34. Vocational programmes can
provide adults with labour market-relevant skills

35. In some countries, young adults turn to vocational
upper secondary education to improve their skills Figure B3.1
Average age of first-time upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary graduates, by programme orientation (2017)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Upper secondary vocational programmes Upper secondary general programmes
Post-secondary non-tertiary vocational programmesAge

36. Starting strong

37. Enrolment of 3-5 year-olds increased by more than 10
percentage points, on average, over the past decade Figure B2.2
Change in enrolment rates of children aged 3 to 5 years (2005, 2010 and 2017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% 2017 2010 2005

38. But in many countries, most children under the age of
three do not participate in education Figure B2.1
Enrolment rates of children under the age of 3 in all early childhood education and care (ECEC) services,
by age (2017)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Under the age of 3 Under the age of 1 Age 1 Age 2
%
Note: Figures in parentheses refer to the age when ECEC systems start offering intentional education objectives.

39. Greater spending on early childhood education and
care can improve quality and access Figure B2.3
Expenditure on all children aged 3 to 5 enrolled in early childhood education and care (ISCED 0) and primary
education as a percentage of GDP (2016)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
% of GDP

40. Children-to-staff ratio in pre-primary education Figure B2.4
Ratio of children to staff in pre-primary (ISCED 02) education (2017)
Note: Figures in parentheses show the percentages of teachers' aides among ECEC contact staff (teachers and teachers' aides).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Number of children per
ECEC staff
Children to contact staff (teachers and teachers' aides) Children to teaching staff

41. Allocating adequate resources helps sustain
quality learning at all levels of education

42. Total public expenditure on education increased between
2010 and 2016, on average across OECD countries Figure C4.2
Index of change in total public expenditure on education as a share of total government expenditure (2010 and 2016)
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Change in public expenditure on education
Change in total government expenditure for all services
Change in total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure
Index

43. Spending on education institutions ranges from 3%
of GDP in Russia to 6% in Norway Figure C2.1.
Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2016)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary All tertiary
%

44. But the share of private spending on primary to tertiary
educational institutions has increased in many countries Figure C3.3
Change in the relative share of public, private and international expenditure on primary to tertiary
educational institutions (2010, 2016)
- 12
- 10
- 8
- 6
- 4
- 2
0
2
4
6
8
Private sources Public sourcesPercentage points

45. OECD countries spend about USD 90 700 per student
on average, in primary and secondary education Figure C1.3.
Cumulative expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student between the age
of 6 and 15 (2016)
0
50 000
100 000
150 000
200 000
250 000
Equivalent USD

46. Yet in many countries teachers’ salaries are still low
and the earnings progression is flat Figure D3.2.
Lower secondary teachers’ statutory salaries at different points in teachers' careers (2018)
0
20 000
40 000
60 000
80 000
100 000
120 000
140 000
160 000
Starting salary/minimum qualifications
Salary after 15 years of experience/most prevalent qualifications
Salary at top of scale/maximum qualifications
Equivalent USD
converted using PPPs

47. Class size has decreased in most OECD countries Figure D2.3
Average class size in primary education (2005 and 2017)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2005 2017

48. School heads earn more than other tertiary-educated
workers, while teachers earn less, on average Figure D3.1
Lower secondary teachers' and school heads' salaries relative to earnings for tertiary-educated workers (2017)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Teachers School heads

49. Balancing teachers’ salaries and reducing class size Figure C7.3
Index of change in teachers' salaries and in average class size in primary education between 2005 and 2017
Japan
Israel
Hungary
Greece
Italy
Portugal
Austria
Mexico
Slovenia
Spain
Turkey
Ireland
Germany
Australia
Iceland
Korea
Czech Republic1
Denmark
England (UK)
Luxembourg
Poland
United States
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Changeinaverageclasssize(2005=100)
Change in teachers' statutory salary after 15 years of experience (2005 = 100)

50. A large share of teachers’ working time is spent on
activities other than teaching Figure D4.4
Percentage of lower secondary teachers' working time spent teaching (2018)
Chile
Latvia
United States
Colombia
Scotland (UK)
Netherlands
Switzerland
Germany
Spain
Israel
France
Norway
Lithuania
Slovak Republic
Hungary
Iceland
Czech Republic
Portugal
Japan
Austria
Estonia
Korea
TurkeyPoland
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Percentage of total statutory
working time spent teaching
Countryaverage
Country average
Net teaching hours

51. -4 000
-3 000
-2 000
-1 000
0
1 000
2 000
3 000 Germany
Switzerland
Austria
Norway
lemishComm.(Belgium)
Australia
Canada
FrenchComm.(Belgium)
Ireland
UnitedStates
Iceland
Spain
Netherlands
Portugal
Italy
Japan
Finland
Slovenia
Greece
Poland
Chile
Israel
France
Hungary
Lithuania
Turkey
Estonia
Colombia
SlovakRepublic
Mexico
CzechRepublic
Latvia
Contribution of theoretical class size
Contribution of teaching time
Contribution of instruction time
Contribution of teachers' salary
Difference of salary cost of teachers per student from OECD average
USD converted using PPPs
Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers
per student in public institutions, primary education (2017) Figure C7.2

52. The teaching workforce is ageing

53. The share of teachers under 30 decreases as the level
of education taught rises Figure D5.2
Share of teachers less than 30 years old, by level of education (2017)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
% Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary

54. Find out more about our work at www.oecd.org/edu
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