Vishram Singh - Textbook of Anatomy Upper Limb and Thorax.. Volume 1 (1).pdf
basics of anatomy and physiology-1.pptx
1. Introduction to Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy is the study of structure of body.
• ARISTOLE was the first person to use the term
ANATOME, a Greek word means CUTTING UP
OR TAKING APART.
• DISSECARE is the latin word means
DISSECTION.
• HIPPOCRATES – father of medicine.
2. PHYSIOLOGY
• It is the branch of science that deals with
various functions of living organisms and the
processes which regulate them.
• Claude Bernard--"the father of physiology“.
3. • Two types of Physiology:
• Cell physiology - This is the main field of
human physiology, in which we study the
functions of cells.
• Special physiology - in this branch of
physiology we study the functions of specific
organs.
19. Anatomical Movements
• Anatomical terms of movement are used to
describe the actions of muscles upon the
skeleton. Muscles contract to produce
movement at joints, and the subsequent
movements can be precisely described using
this terminology.
20. • Flexion refers to a movement that decreases
the angle between two body parts.
• Extension refers to a movement that increases
the angle between two body parts.
• Abduction is a movement away from the
midline
• Adduction is a movement towards the
midline.
21. • Medial rotation is a rotational movement
towards the midline.
• Lateral rotation is a rotating movement away
from the midline.
• Elevation refers to movement in a superior
direction.
• Depression refers to movement in an inferior
direction.
22. • Supination is movement to supine position.
• Pronation is movement to prone position.
• Dorsiflexion refers to flexion at the ankle.
• Plantarflexion refers extension at the ankle.
• Inversion involves the movement of the sole
towards the median plane.
• Eversion involves the movement of the sole
away from the median plane.
23. • Opposition brings the thumb and little finger
together.
• Reposition is a movement that moves the
thumb and the little finger away from each
other.
• Circumduction can be defined as a conical or
circular movement of a limb extending from
the joint at which the movement is controlled.
40. Fluid mosaic model Cell Membrane
• The fluid mosaic model describes the
structure of the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of components —including
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and
carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a
fluid character. Plasma membranes range from
5 to 10 nm in thickness.
41. Cytoplasm
• Fluid part of the cell
• Cytosol – clear liquid
• Ectoplasm – Just beneath the cell
• Endopalsm – Between ectoplasm and nucleus.
44. Golgi Apparatus
• Present in all cells except RBC.
• Cisternae – 5/6 Flattened membranous sac.
• Situated near the Nucleus.
• Cis face and Trans face.
45.
46. Membrane bound vesicles
• Vesicles are formed by budding off from existing areas
of cell membrane.
• Phagosomes: solid foreign materials like bacteria
engulfed.
• Pinocytic vesicles : fluid part taken into the cytoplasm.
• Lysosomes: spheroidal bodies with hydrolase enzyme
for degradation of various substances. Absent in RBC
and abundant in neutrophils.
• Peroxisomes: Resembles lysosomes contains oxidase
and catalases found in liver and kidney.
47.
48. Mitochondria
• Power generating units of cell.
• Structure :
• A. outer smooth membrane – contains small
pores to allow the passage of small molecules.
• B. Inner membrane – thrown into the folds to
inner cavity.
• C. Matrix – rich in calcium, glycogen, DNA,
RNA.
• They can move, change the shape and size
and divide.
49.
50. Cytoskeleton
• Complex network that gives shape, support
and stability to the cell.
• Three components:
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments.
51.
52. Nucleus
• Eukaryotes – The cells with nucleus
• Prokaryotes – The cells without nucleus (like
RBC).
• Uni nucleated cell – cell with single Nucleus
• Multinucleated cell – cell with multiple
nucleus.
• Components – Nuclear membrane,
Nuceloplasm, Nucleolus.
53. Nuclear components
• Nuclear membrane – double layered
membrane.
• Nucleoplasm – Jelly ground substance
contains DNA
• Nucleolus – The RNA synthesized by
chromosome is stored here.
54.
55.
56.
57. • Mitosis: The process cells use to make exact
replicas of themselves. Mitosis is observed in
almost all the body’s cells, including eyes, skin,
hair, and muscle cells.
• Meiosis: In this type of cell division, sperm or egg
cells are produced instead of identical daughter
cells as in mitosis.
• Binary Fission: Single-celled organisms like
bacteria replicate themselves for reproduction.
58. Tissues
• A tissue is defined as a collection of cells and
associated intercellular materials specialized
for specific functions.
• Classification:
• 1. Epithelial tissues
• 2. Connective tissues
• 3. Muscular tissues
• 4. Nervous tissues.
59. Epithelial tissue
• The layer of cell that covers the outer surface
and luminal surface of the body.
• Epithelial tissue is made up of epithelial cells.
The cells can be different shapes and can be
arranged in a single layer or multiple layers
depending on where they are in your body
and what kind of functions they have.
60. Special feature
• Microvilli: Microvilli are non-motile (they don’t
move) finger-like structures on the surface of
epithelial cells that function to increase the cell’s
surface area so that it can better absorb
substances. Striated and brush border types.
• Cilia are tiny, hair-like, motile (they can move)
structures on the surface of the cell that help
move entire cells or can move substances along
the outer surface of the cell. Ciliated cells usually
have hundreds of cilia on their surfaces.
61. • Stereocilia: Stereocilia are specialized
microvilli that resemble cilia and project from
the surface of certain epithelial cells.
68. Cell Membrane
• A cell membrane (or plasma membrane) is an
ultrathin, plastic, dynamic, electrically charged,
and selectively-permeable membrane layer that
separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular
matrix and helps in maintaining the cell structure
and function.
• The cell membrane, selectively permeable, allows
the movement of both solvent and some
selected solutes. The movement is along
the concentration gradient.
69.
70.
71. Glands
• Glands are considered as specialized epithelial
cells that are adapted specifically for the
purpose of secretion.
• Types:
• Exocrine
• Endocrine
• Paracrine
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. Connective Tissue
• The tissue that fills the interstices between
more specified elements.
• Holds and supports different elements within
organ.
90. Cartilage
• Cartilage is a tough and flexible connective
tissue in areas of high wear, such as bone
ends, intervertebral discs, and joints.
• It is composed of cells and fibers embedded in
gel like matrix rich in mucoploysaccharides.
91. Structure of cartilage
• 1. Perichondrium – outer fibrous covering.
• 2. Cells – chondroblasts, chondrocytes.
• 3. Intercellular substance – chondroitin sulfate
and hyaluronic acid.
• 4. Fibers – Collagen type II fibers and elastic
fibers.
92.
93. Characteristic features of cartilage
• 1. Avasular
• 2. No nerves. So insensitive
• 3. No perichondrium in fibrocartilage.
• 4. No lymphatics
• 5. Poor regenerative capacity.
94.
95.
96. Organization of the Human Body.
• Six levels of organization of the human body.
• Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system,
organism.
100. Physiology of Cell
• Function of lipid layer:
• Semi permeable in nature allows fat soluble
substances like O2, CO2, alcohol to pass
through it.
• Does not allow glucose, urea and electrolytes
to pass through it
101. • Function of protein layer:
• Integral proteins - serve as receptors which bind
with hormones.
• Help in the transport of substances across the cell
membrane in the form of pores and channels for
water soluble substance to pass through.
• It acts as the carrier proteins.
• Acts as the pump to actively transport substances
against their concentration gradient. Eg:
Na+k+ATPase pump.
• Responsible for particular shape, growth and
differentiation of cells.
102. • Peripheral protein – acts as enzymes to
control intracellular functions.
• Hereditary spherocytosis – Mutation in genes
of spectrin protein leads to change of
biconcave shape of RBCs to spherical shape
leads to hemolytic anemia.
103. • Function of Carbohydrates:
• Negatively charged so do not allow the
negatively charged substance to pass through.
• Acts as receptors for some hormones.
104. Function of cell membrane
• 1. Protective function
• 2. Selective permeability
• 3. Absorptive function
• 4. Excretory function
• 5. Exchange of gases
• 6. Maintain the shape and size of the cell.
105. Function of Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough EPR – synthesis of protein
• Smooth EPR –
• A. synthesis of lipids, steroids, cholesterol and
CHO.
• B. To detoxify drugs,alcohol, metabolic
byproducts.
• EPR in muscle – Sacrcoplasmic reticulum
106. Function Of Golgi complex
• Processing and delivery of substances like
proteins and lipids to other parts of cells.
• Packs the processed materials into secretory
granules, vesicles and lysosomes to dispatch
to other part of cell or outside the cell.
• Sorts out and labels the materials for
distribution to proper destination.
107. Function of Lysosomes
• Digestion of unwanted substances.
• Removal of excess secretory products in cells.
• Clinical correlation:
• Lysosomal Glycogen storage disease (Glycogen
abundant storage), Tay-Sach’s disease (Lipid
abundant storage)
• Leads to Seizures, muscle rigidity and
tiredness.
108. • Peroxisome – detoxification and oxidation.
• Centrosome – centrioles are responsible for
movement of chromosome during cell
division.
109. Function of Mitochondria
• Chief site for TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) cycle,
electron transport chain and fatty acid
metabolism.
• Release of energy from ATP and Guanosine
triphosphate (GTP).
• It concentrates calcium.
110. Function of Nucleus
• Controls all the activities of the cell.
• Synthesizes RNA
• Forms subunits for Ribosomes.
• Sends genetic information to the cytoplasm for
the protein synthesis through RNA messenger.
• Controls cell division through genes.
• Stores hereditary information in genes and
transforms the information from one generation
to next.
112. • Simple Diffusion:
• Diffusion is defined as the net movement of
particles from an area of greater
concentration to an area of lesser
concentration.
• Diffusion is responsible for the movement of
a large number of substances, such as gases
and small uncharged molecules, into and out
of cells.
113.
114. Osmosis
• osmosis is a specific type of diffusion; it is the
passage of water from a region of lower solute
concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane to a high solute concentration
area. Water moves in or out of a cell until its
concentration is the same on both sides of the
plasma membrane.
115.
116. Facilitated diffusion
• The type of diffusion where the carrier
proteins helps in the transport of the
substances.
• The water soluble substances with larger
molecules cannot pass through protein
channel by simple diffusion. So a carrier
protein is required to transport.
• The diffusion is faster.
117. Active Transport
• Movement of substances against the chemical
or electrical or electrochemical gradient.
• It is uphill transport.
• It requires energy obtained by breakdown of
ATP for the transport.
• Carrier proteins helps in the active transport.
• Substances transported are Na, k, Ca,
hydrogen, chloride, glucose, amino acid and
urea.
118. • The energy may be harnessed by one of two
means:
• The direct hydrolysis of ATP (primary active
transport).
• By coupling with the transport of another
molecule moving along its electrochemical
gradient (secondary active transport).
119.
120. • If the two molecules are transported in the
same direction it is called symport.
• Glucose uptake in the kidneys is an example
of symport as its movement is coupled to the
parallel transport of sodium
• This is secondary active transport as the
sodium is moving passively down an
electrochemical gradient.
121. • If the two molecules are transported in opposite
directions it is called antiport.
• The sodium-potassium pump is an example of
an antiporter as sodium and potassium are
pumped in opposite directions.
• This is primary active transport as both molecules
are pumped against their gradient and require
ATP hydrolysis.
•
122.
123. Semi-permeable membranes
• Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers
of material that allow some things to pass
through them but prevent other things from
passing through.
• Cell membranes are an example of semi-
permeable membranes.
• Cell membranes allow small molecules such as
oxygen, water carbon dioxide, and oxygen to pass
through but do not allow larger molecules like
glucose, sucrose, proteins, and starch to enter the
cell directly.
124.
125.
126. Bulk transport (Vesicles)
• Macromolecules are too large to move with
membrane proteins and must be transported
across membranes in vesicles.
127. • Exocytosis
• The transport of macromolecules out of a cell
in a vesicle.
• The object is surrounded by a membrane
inside the cell to form a vesicle
• The vesicle is moved to the cell membrane.
• The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the
cell membrane, expelling its contents outside
the cell.
128.
129. • Endocytosis
• The transport of macromolecules into a cell in
a vesicle.
• The cell puts out extensions around the object
to be engulfed.
• The membrane fuses together around the
object, forming a vesicle.
130.
131. • There are 2 types of endocytosis:
• phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell
drinking).
132.
133.
134. Body fluid compartments
• The adult human body is made up of 55% to
60% water and is divided into extracellular
and intracellular fluid compartments.
• Extracellular fluid is present outside the cells
and makes up ⅓ of the total body water.
• Intracellular fluid is present inside the cells
and makes up ⅔ of the total body water.
135. • Intracellular and extracellular fluids are
separated into compartments by
semipermeable membranes, and the
transport of fluid and ions is maintained by
Channels in the cell membrane.
• Each compartment contains different
concentrations of ions and osmolar molecules.
136. • The relative charge and osmolarity are
maintained by the transport of water and
substances between compartments.
• Hypernatremia, hyponatremia, and edema
are the clinical conditions arising from
disturbances in the maintenance of Osmolarity
of the body fluid compartments.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142. HOMEOSTASIS
• Walter B canon – coined the term
• Homeostasis means a constant internal
environment in the body which remains
within certain physiological range.
• Components – Receptors, control center,
effectors.
• Mechanism of Action: Acts through Feedback
mechanism. It means some portions of output
signal of a system is fed back to the input.
• Positive and Negative feedback mechanism.
143. • Three types of Homeostasis:
• Fluid balance
• Acid – Base balance
• Electrolyte balance.
144.
145.
146.
147. • Electrolytes are minerals in your body that have
an electric charge. They are in your blood, urine,
tissues, and other body fluids. Electrolytes are
important because they help:
• Balance the amount of water in your body
• Balance your body's acid/base (pH) level
• Move nutrients into your cells.
• Move wastes out of your cells.
• Make sure that your nerves, muscles, the heart,
and the brain work the way they should.
148. • Sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride,
phosphate, and magnesium are all electrolytes.
• The levels of electrolytes in your body can
become too low or too high. This can happen
when the amount of water in your body changes.
The amount of water that you take in should
equal the amount you lose. If something upsets
this balance, you may have too little water
(dehydration) or too much water (overhydration).
• Some medicines, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating,
and liver or kidney problems can all upset your
water balance.
149. Cell Cycle
• A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in
a cell as it grows and divides.
• A cell spends most of its time in interphase, and
during this time it grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
• The cell then leaves interphase, undergoes
mitosis, and completes its division.
• Each daughter cells formed enter their own
interphase and begin a new round of the cell
cycle.
150.
151. • Cell cycle has different stages called G1, S, G2,
and M.
• G1 is the stage where the cell is preparing to
divide.
• S – DNA synthesis phase where the cell copies
all the DNA.
152. • G2 stage - where it organizes and condenses
the genetic material, or starts to condense the
genetic material, and prepares to divide.
• M phase- This is where the cell partitions the
two copies of the genetic material into the
two daughter cells.
• After M phase completes, cell division occurs
and two cells are left, and the cell cycle can
begin again.
153. Tissue formation and repair
• Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells
for dead cells.
• Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by
fibrosis.
• Regeneration - The new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed, and
normal function is usually restored. Example –
Skin, Mucous membrane of intestine.
154. • Regeneration can also involve division of
differentiated cells in connective tissue and
glands, such as the liver and pancreas. These
cells do not normally divide, but retain the
ability to divide after an injury.
155. • Fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue
function.
• In the adult brain, heart, and skeletal muscle
there are relatively few stem cells and the
mature neurons, cardiac muscle and skeletal
muscle do not divide.
156. Mechanism of Regeneration
• When the edges of a wound are close
together, the wound fills with blood, and a
clot forms .
• The clot contains the thread-like protein
fibrin, which binds the edges of the wound
together and stops the bleeding.
• The surface of the clot dries to form a scab,
which seals the wound and helps prevent
infection.
157. • An inflammatory response is activated to
fight infectious agents in the wound and to
help the repair process .
• Dilation of blood vessels brings blood cells
and other substances to the injury area,
• Increased blood vessel permeability allows
them to enter the tissue. The area is “walled
off” by the fibrin, and neutrophils enter the
tissue from the blood.
158. • The epithelium at the edge of the wound
undergoes regeneration and migrates under
the scab while the inflammatory response
proceeds.
• The epithelial cells from the edges meet, and
the epithelium is restored. After the
epithelium is repaired, the scab is sloughed off
(shed).
159.
160.
161. Mechanism of Fibrosis
• A macrophage, removes the dead neutrophils,
cellular debris, and the decom-posing clot.
• Fibroblasts from the surrounding connective
tissue migrate into the area, producing
collagen and other extracellular matrix
components.
• Capillaries grow from blood vessels at the
edge of the wound and revascularize the area.
162. • The result is fibrosis, during which the clot is
replaced with granulation tissue, a delicate,
granular-appearing connective tissue that
consists of fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries.
• Eventually, normal connective tissue replaces the
granulation tissue. Sometimes a large amount of
granulation tissue persists as a scar, which at first
is bright red because numerous blood vessels are
present.
163. • The scar turns from red to white as collagen
accumulates and the blood vessels decrease in
number.
• When the wound edges are far apart, the clot
may not completely close the gap, and it takes
much longer for the epithelial cells to
regenerate and cover the wound.
164. • With increased tissue damage, the degree of
inflammation is greater, there is more cell debris
for the phagocytes to remove, and the risk of
infection increases. Much more granulation tissue
forms.
• Wound contracture, a result of the contraction of
fibroblasts in the granulation tissue, pulls the
edges of the wound closer together.
• Although wound contracture reduces the size of
the wound and speeds healing, it can lead to
disfiguring and debilitating scars.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169. Membranes Function
• The two broad categories of tissue
membranes in the body:
• (1) connective tissue membranes - which
include synovial membrane
• (2) Epithelial membrane - which include
mucous membranes, serous membranes, and
the cutaneous membrane, in other words, the
skin.
170. Synovial Membrane
• Synovial membrane is a type of connective
tissue membrane that lines the cavity of a
freely movable joint.
• Synovial membranes surround the joints of
the shoulder, elbow, and knee.
171.
172. • Fibroblasts in the inner layer of the synovial
membrane release hyaluronan into the joint
cavity.
• The hyaluronan traps available water to form
the synovial fluid, a natural lubricant that
enables the bones of a joint to move freely
against one another without much friction.
• This synovial fluid readily exchanges water and
nutrients with blood, as do all body fluids.
173. Mucous Membrane
• The mucous membrane is also a composite of
connective and epithelial tissues. Sometimes
called mucosae.
• These epithelial membranes line the body
cavities and hollow passageways that open to
the external environment, and include the
digestive, respiratory, excretory, and
reproductive tracts.
174.
175. Serous Membrane
• A serous membrane is an epithelial
membrane composed of mesodermally
derived epithelium called the mesothelium
that is supported by connective tissue. These
membranes line the coelomic cavities of the
body, that is, those cavities that do not open
to the outside, and they cover the organs
located within those cavities.
176.
177.
178. • Serous fluid secreted by the cells of the thin
squamous mesothelium lubricates the
membrane and reduces abrasion and friction
between organs.
• Three serous membranes line the thoracic
cavity; the two pleura that cover the lungs
and the pericardium that covers the heart.
• The peritoneum, in the abdominal cavity that
covers abdominal organs.
179. Cutaneous membrane
• The skin is an epithelial membrane also called
the cutaneous membrane.
• It is a stratified squamous epithelial
membrane resting on top of connective
tissue.
• The apical surface of this membrane is
exposed to the external environment and is
covered with dead, keratinized cells that help
protect the body from friction and pathogens.
180.
181. Exocrine Glands
• Exocrine system glands take on a variety of
functions.
• Mammary glands produce milk.
• Mucinous glands produce mucus to line and
protect delicate tissue.
• Sebaceous glands produce an oily substance on
the surface of your hair and skin.
• Serous glands produce watery substances, such
as sweat and saliva.
182. • The function of each depends on the organ in your
body they’re associated with. The main purpose of all
exocrine glands is to make and release substances to
assist your body in some way. They help your body:
• Digest your food.
• Absorb nutrients.
• Protect the inner lining of your organs.
• Control your body temperature.
• Lubricate your hair and skin.
183. Clinical Implications
• Hyperhydrosis: Hyperhydrosis is also called
excessive sweating.
• Bromhidrosis: Bromhidrosis is also called
excessive body odor. It occurs when bacteria
on your skin starts to break down dried sweat.
184. • Acne vulgaris: Acne occurs when your
sebaceous glands plug up with sebum. This
releases free fatty acids, which trigger an
inflammatory response that creates pimples.
• Sjögren's syndrome: Sjögren's syndrome is an
autoimmune disorder. It reduces the amount
of moisture your salivary glands and lacrimal
glands produce. This can lead to dry mouth
and dry eyes.
185. • Mammary duct ectasia: Mammary duct
ectasia is the swelling and thickening of your
milk ducts. This condition can cause blockages
in your milk ducts.
• Cystic fibrosis: Cystic fibrosis is a disease that
causes sticky, thick mucus to build up in
organs including your lungs and pancreas.
186. • Brunner’s gland hyperplasia: Brunner’s gland
hyperplasia is a noncancerous (benign) tumor
on your duodenum.
• Pancreatitis: Pancreatitis can cause your
pancreas to stop producing digestive enzymes.
