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1. Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today, 7th Edition
Frank Schmalleger
Introduction to Criminology
CRJ 270
Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

2. Criminology Today, 7th Edition
Frank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Criminology Today
AN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
SEVENTH EDITION
Theories of Social
Process and Social
Development
8

3. Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the
following questions:
• How does the process of social interaction contribute to
criminal behavior?
• What are the various social process perspectives discussed in
this chapter?
• What kinds of social policy initiatives might be based on social
process theories of crime causation?
• What are the shortcomings of the social process perspective?
• What are the various social development perspectives
discussed in this chapter?
• What are the central concepts of social development theories?
• What kinds of social policy initiatives might be suggested by
social development theories?
• What are the shortcomings of social development perspectives
on criminality?

4. Joran van der Sloot
• He was the prime suspect in the 2005 disappearance
of 18 year old Natalee Holloway in Aruba.
• Joran was found guilty for the murder of 21 year old
Stephany Flores in Lima, Peru.
• He claimed he suffered psychological trauma from
the media after he was listed as the prime suspect in
Holloway’s disappearance.

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Frank Schmalleger
The Perspective of Social
Interaction
• Theories depend on the process of
interaction between individuals and society
 Interaction between individuals and society.
• Criminality is not an innate human
characteristic
 Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with
others, mainly through socialization.
 Changes happening over time.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The Perspective of Social
Interaction
• The process through which criminality
is acquired is active, open-ended, and
ongoing.
 Individuals who are weak in conformity
are more likely to be influenced by
social processes and contingent
experiences that lead to crime.

7. Types of Social Process Approaches
• Social learning theory – focus on role of communication and
socialization. All behavior is learned, such as, norms, values
and patterns.
• Social control theory – focus on the strength of the bond
people share with individuals and institutions around them.
• Labeling theory – special significance of society’s response to
the criminal and sees the process through which person
becomes a criminal.
• Re-integrative shaming – emphasizes possible positive
outcomes of the labeling process.
• Dramaturgical perspective – focus on how people can
effectively manage the impressions they make on others.

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Frank Schmalleger
Differential Association
Edwin Sutherland
• Crime is learned through a process of
differential association with others who
communicate criminal values and
advocate the commission of crimes.
• Suggests crime is not substantially
different from other forms of behavior.

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
1. Criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in
interaction with others in a process of
communication.
3. The principle part of the learning of
criminal behavior occurs within
intimate personal groups.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
4. The learning includes techniques of
committing crimes and the specific
direction of motives, drives,
rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives and
drives is learned from definitions of
the legal codes as favorable or
unfavorable.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
6. A person becomes delinquent because
of an excess of definitions favorable to
law violation over those unfavorable to
law violation.
7. Differential associations may vary in
frequency, duration, priority, and
intensity.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
8. The process of learning criminal
behavior involves the same
mechanisms involved in other
learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an
expression of general needs and
values, it is not explained by those
needs and values.

13. Differential Association-
Reinforcement Theory
Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers –
added reinforcement to differential
association theory.
• The same learning process produces as
Sutherland, both conforming and
deviant behavior.
• Primary learning mechanisms
 Instrumental conditioning
 Imitation
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Differential Association-
Reinforcement Theory
• Akers' social structure–social learning
theory explains crime as a function of
learning within a social structure.
• Learning is the mediating process
through which the environment causes
crime.
• Location in the social structure is a
major determinant of how one is
socialized and what one will learn.

15. Differential Identification Theory
Daniel Glaser
 A person pursues criminal behavior to the
extent that he identifies with real or
imaginary persons from whose
perspective his criminal behavior seems
acceptable.
• The process of differential association
leads to intimate personal identification
with lawbreakers, resulting in criminal
acts.

16. Real or Imaginary Persons

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Frank Schmalleger
Social Control Theories
• Seek identifying factors that keep people
from committing crimes.
• Focus on the process through which
integration with positive institutions and
individuals develops.
• Ask why people obey rules instead of
breaking them.

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Frank Schmalleger
Containment Theory
• Walter Reckless
 Crime is the consequence of social
pressures to involve oneself in violations
of the law, as well as of failure to resist
such pressures.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Containment Theory
• Compares crime with biological immune
response.
 Only some people exposed to a disease
come down with it.
 Only some people exposed to social
pressures to commit crime violate the
law.

20. Figure 8-2 A Diagrammatic Representation of Containment Theory

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Frank Schmalleger
Delinquency and Self-Esteem
• Howard Kaplan's self-derogation theory
of delinquency
• People who are ridiculed by their peers
suffer a loss of self-esteem, assess
themselves poorly, and abandon the
motivation to conform.

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Frank Schmalleger
Social Bond Theory
• Travis Hirschi (1969)
• Through successful socialization, a
bond forms between individuals and the
social group
• When the bond is weakened or broken,
deviance and crime may result

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Components of the Social Bond
• Attachment
 A person's shared interests with others
• Commitment
 The amount of energy and effort put
into activities with others
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Components of the Social Bond
• Involvement
 The amount of time spent with others in
shared activities
• Belief
 A shared value and moral system

25. The General Theory of Crime
Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990)
• Most crimes are aimed at satisfying
desires of the moment.
• Crime is a national consequence of
unrestrained human tendencies to seek
pleasure and avoid pain.
• Self-control is the key concept in the
explanation of all forms of crime.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
The General Theory of Crime
• Per-Olof H. Wikström's situational action theory
(SAT) proposes that an individual's ability to
exercise self-control comes from the interaction
between personal traits and the situation.
• The core unit of analysis is the situation.
• SAT argues that there is no fundamental
difference between people who follow or break
moral rules in general. Those who break the rules
are called criminals.
• Understanding of moral rules of conduct.

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Control-Balance Theory
• Charles R. Tittle
• Control ratio
 The amount of control to which a person
is subject versus the amount of control
that person exerts over others
 Predicts the probability one will engage
in deviance and the specific form it will
take

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Frank Schmalleger
Figure 8-4 Control–Balance Theory
Source: Schmalleger, Frank J., Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Frank Schmalleger
Labeling Theory
• Tagging
 The process whereby an individual is
negatively defined by agencies of justice
continued on next slide

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Labeling Theory
• After the tagging process is completed,
the offender has been defined as bad
 Few legitimate opportunities remain
open
 Can only associated with others
similarly defined
 Continued association leads to
continued crime

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Primary and Secondary Deviance
• Primary deviance
 Initial deviance undertaken to solve an
immediate problem or meet the expectations of
one's subcultural group.
• Forced association with deviant group.
• Secondary deviance
 Deviant behavior that results from official
labeling and from association with others who
have been so labeled.
• New role, in clothes, speech, posture and
mannerisms.

32. Labeling
• Howard Becker (1963)
 society creates deviance and the deviant
person by responding to circumscribed
behaviors.
• Jazz musician
• Deviance is not a quality of the act but a
consequence of the application by others
of rules and sanctions.
continued on next slide

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Labeling
• Moral enterprise
 efforts of an interest group to have its
sense of propriety embodied in law.
 “Rules are the product of someone’s
initiative, and we can think of the
people who exhibit such enterprise as
moral entrepreneurs”. (Howard Becker)

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Contributions of Labeling Theory
• Deviance results from social processes
involving the imposition of definitions.
• Deviants are socially defined.
continued on next slide

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Contributions of Labeling Theory
• The reaction of society is the major
element in determining the criminality
of the behavior and person.
• Negative self-images follow processing
by the formal mechanisms of criminal
justice rather than preceding
delinquency.
continued on next slide

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Contributions of Labeling Theory
• Labeling by society and handling by the
justice system perpetuate crime rather
than reduce it.

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Reintegrative Shaming
• John Braithwaite
 emphasizes processes by which a deviant is
labeled and sanctioned but then brought back
into a community of conformity
• Types of shame:
 Stigmatic shaming – thought to destroy the
moral bond between the offender and the
community.
 Reintegrative shaming – thought to strengthen
the moral bond between the offender and the
community.

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Dramaturgical Perspective
• Erving Goffman (1959)
 Individuals play a variety of nearly
simultaneous social roles that are sustained in
interaction with others.
• Impression management:
 The intentional enactment of practiced
behavior intended to convey to others one's
desirable personal characteristics and social
qualities.
 Constant exchange of information to create an
overall definition of a given situation.
continued on next slide

39. Dramaturgical Perspective
• Discrediting information
 Information that is inconsistent with the
managed impressions being communicated in a
given situation.
 Information that an actor-individual want to hide,
is revealed, the flow of interaction is disrupted
and the nature of the performance may be
changed substantially.
• Total institution
 An institution from which individuals can rarely
come and go and in which communal life is
intense and circumscribed.

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Policy Implications of Social
Process Theories
• Social process theories emphasize
crime prevention programs that work to
enhance self-control and build prosocial
bonds.
continued on next slide

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Policy Implications of Social
Process Theories
• Programs based on social process
theories
 Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP)
 Preparing for the Drug Free Years
(PDFY)
 Montreal Preventive Treatment Program

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Critique of Social Process Theories
• Differential association theory
 Initial formulation is not applicable at
the individual level
 The theory is untestable
 It is not a sufficient explanation for
crime
 It fails to account for the emergence of
criminal values
continued on next slide

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Critique of Social Process Theories
• Labeling theory
 It does not explain the origin of crime
 Little empirical support for the concept
of secondary deviance
 Little empirical support for the claim
that system labeling is negative
 It has little to say about secret deviants
continued on next slide

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Critique of Social Process Theories
• Dramaturgical perspective
 Provides a set of linked concepts rather
than a theoretical frame
 Does not make suggestions for
institutional change
 Takes the theater analogy too far

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The Social Development
Perspective
• Focuses on human development
 The relationship between the maturing
individual and his or her changing
environment, and the social processes
that relationship entails
 Begins at birth and occurs in a social
context
• Social development theories tend to be
integrated theories

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Key Developmental Tasks
• Establishing identity
• Cultivating symbiotic relationships
• Defining physical attractiveness
• Investing in a value system
• Obtaining an education
• Separating from family and achieving
independence
• Obtaining and maintaining gainful
employment

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The Life Course Perspective
• Focus on dimensions of offending over the
life course
 Participation – fraction of a population that is
criminally active.
 Frequency – the number of crimes committed by
an individual offender per unit of time.
 Duration – the length of the criminal career.
 Seriousness – the seriousness of the crimes
committed by the offender during a criminal
career.
• Trajectories and transitions
continued on next slide

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The Life Course Perspective
• Activation
 The ways that delinquent behaviors are
stimulated and the processes by which the
continuity, frequency, and diversity of
delinquency are shaped
• Aggravation
 The existence of a developmental
sequence of activities that escalate or
increase in seriousness over time
continued on next slide

49. The Life Course Perspective
• Desistance
 A reduction in the frequency of
offending, variety, or seriousness

50. Figure 8-8 Four Important Life Course Principles
Source: Schmalleger, Frank J., Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

51. Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded
Theory
• Delinquency is more likely to occur
when bonds to society are weakened or
broken
• Social ties embedded in adult
transitions explain variations in crime
not accounted for by childhood
deviance
continued on next slide

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Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded
Theory
• Key turning points
 employment and marriage
• Social capital
 The degree of positive relationships that
individuals build up over the course of
their lives

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Moffitt's Dual Taxonomic Theory
• Explains why most antisocial children
do not become adult criminals
• Life course persisters (LCP)
 display constant patterns of misbehavior
throughout life
• Adolescence-limited offenders (AL)
 led into offending by structural
disadvantages

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Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Persistence
 Continuity in crime
• Desistance
 The cessation of crime or the
termination of a period of involvement
in crime
continued on next slide

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Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Desistance
 Unaided
• no formal intervention involved
 Aided
• involves agencies of the justice system
• Several early criminologists noted
desistance phenomenon
continued on next slide

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Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Cambridge Study in Delinquent
Development found life course patterns
seen in the US also characteristic of
English delinquents
• Persistent offenders suffer from a variety
of risk factors for delinquency
• Offending peaks at age 17-18, then
declines – by age 35, many subjects had
conforming lifestyles
continued on next slide

57. Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Loeber and LeBlanc's components of
desistance
 Deceleration
 Specialization
 Deescalation
 Reaching a ceiling
continued on next slide

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Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Resilience
 The psychological ability to successfully
cope with severe stress and negative
events

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Evolutionary Ecolocy
• Wolfgang's birth cohort study found a
small group of chronic juvenile
offenders accounted for a
disproportionately large share of all
juvenile arrests
• Evolutionary ecology builds on social
ecology approach
• Emphasizes developmental pathways
encountered early in life

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Thornberry's Interactional Theory
• Delinquency caused by weakened bond
to conventional society combined with
environment in which delinquency can
be learned and in which rule-violating
behavior can be positively rewarded
continued on next slide

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Thornberry's Interactional Theory
• Childhood maltreatment may be an
important element of the
developmental process leading to
delinquency
 Extent of maltreatment related to extent
of delinquent involvement later in life

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Developmental Pathways
• Manifestations of disruptive behaviors
are often age dependent
• Program of Research on the Causes and
Correlates of Delinquency
 Longitudinal study focuses on improving
understanding of serious delinquency,
violence, and drug use
 Examines how youths develop within
the context of family, school, peers, and
community continued on next slide

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Developmental Pathways
• Positive developmental pathways
fostered when adolescents are able to
develop
 A sense of industry and competency
 A feeling of connectedness to
others/society
 A belief in their ability to control their
future
 A stable identity
continued on next slide

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Developmental Pathways
• Youths with these characteristics more
likely to engage in prosocial behaviors,
be members of nondeviant peer groups

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Figure 8-12 Three Pathways to Disruptive Behavior and Delinquency
Source: Barbara Tatem Kelley et al., Developmental Pathways in Boys’ Disruptive and Delinquent Behavior
(Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, December 1997).

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Project on Human Development in
Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN)
• Longitudinal analysis of how
individuals, families, institutions, and
communities evolve together
• Traces how criminal behavior evolves
from birth to age 32
• Early results have led to targeted
interventions intended to lower rates of
offending

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Policy Implications of Social
Development Theories
• OJJDP's Comprehensive Strategy
Program
 Provides a framework for preventing
delinquency, intervening in early
delinquent behavior, and responding to
serious, violent, and chronic offending
continued on next slide

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Policy Implications of Social
Development Theories
• Targeted Outreach program
 Diverts at-risk juveniles into activities
intended to develop a sense of
belonging, competence, usefulness, and
self-control

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Critique of Social Development
Theories
• Definitional issues and problems
• Difficulties in developing risk/needs
assessment devices and in using them
in both fundamental (pure) and
applied research