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Ch 1.pdf
1.
Database System Concepts,
6th Ed. ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1: Introduction
2.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.2 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Management System (DBMS) DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use Database Applications: Banking: transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions Databases can be very large. Databases touch all aspects of our lives
3.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.3 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition University Database Example Application program examples Add new students, instructors, and courses Register students for courses, and generate class rosters Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA) and generate transcripts In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file systems
4.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.4 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Drawbacks of using file systems to store data Data redundancy and inconsistency Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Difficulty in accessing data Need to write a new program to carry out each new task Data isolation — multiple files and formats Integrity problems Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
5.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.5 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.) Atomicity of updates Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all Concurrent access by multiple users Concurrent access needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies – Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time Security problems Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
6.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.6 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition View of Data An architecture for a database system
7.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.7 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Levels of Abstraction Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data. type instructor = record ID : string; name : string; dept_name : string; salary : integer; end; View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.
8.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.8 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Instances and Schemas Similar to types and variables in programming languages Schema Schema – the logical structure of the database Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts and the relationship between them Analogous to type information of a variable in a program Physical schema: database design at the physical level Logical schema: database design at the logical level Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time Analogous to the value of a variable Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without changing the logical schema Applications depend on the logical schema In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
9.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.9 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Data Models A collection of tools for describing Data Data relationships Data semantics Data constraints Relational model Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design) Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational) Semistructured data model (XML) Other older models: Network model Hierarchical model
10.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.10 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Relational Model Relational model (Chapter 2) Example of tabular data in the relational model Columns Rows
11.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.11 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition A Sample Relational Database
12.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.12 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Data Manipulation Language (DML) Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data model DML also known as query language Two classes of languages Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get those data Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is required without specifying how to get those data SQL is the most widely used query language
13.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.13 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Data Definition Language (DDL) Specification notation for defining the database schema Example: create table instructor ( ID char(5), name varchar(20), dept_name varchar(20), salary numeric(8,2)) DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) Database schema Integrity constraints Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors) Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL) – e.g. dept_name value in any instructor tuple must appear in department relation Authorization
14.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.14 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition SQL SQL: widely used non-procedural language Example: Find the name of the instructor with ID 22222 select name from instructor where instructor.ID = ‘22222’ Example: Find the ID and building of instructors in the Physics dept. select instructor.ID, department.building from instructor, department where instructor.dept_name = department.dept_name and department.dept_name = ‘Physics’ Application programs generally access databases through one of Language extensions to allow embedded SQL Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database Chapters 3, 4 and 5
15.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.15 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Design The process of designing the general structure of the database: Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas. Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database? Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas? Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
16.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.16 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Design? Is there any problem with this design?
17.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.17 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Design Approaches Normalization Theory (Chapter 8) Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7) Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other objects – Described by a set of attributes Relationship: an association among several entities Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
18.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.18 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition The Entity-Relationship Model Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other objects Described by a set of attributes Relationship: an association among several entities Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram: What happened to dept_name of instructor and student?
19.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.19 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Object-Relational Data Models Relational model: flat, “atomic” values Object Relational Data Models Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs to deal with added data types. Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non- atomic values such as nested relations. Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data, while extending modeling power. Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
20.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.20 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition XML: Extensible Markup Language Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C) Originally intended as a document markup language not a database language The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange formats. A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying XML documents/data
21.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.21 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Storage Management Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks: Interaction with the file manager Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data Issues: Storage access File organization Indexing and hashing
22.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.22 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Components of Storage Manager Authorization and integrity manager which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of users to access data. Transaction manager which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting. File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures used to represent information stored on disk. Buffer manager which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory, and deciding what data to cache in main memory.
23.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.23 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Query Processing 1. Parsing and translation 2. Optimization 3. Evaluation
24.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.24 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Query Processing (Cont.) Alternative ways of evaluating a given query Equivalent expressions Different algorithms for each operation Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be enormous Need to estimate the cost of operations Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database must maintain Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex expressions
25.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.25 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Transaction Management What if the system fails? What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data? A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database application Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures. Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
26.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.26 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Users and Administrators Database
27.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.27 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Administrator Schema definition. The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL. Storage structure and access-method definition. Schema and physical-organization modification. The DBA carries out changes to the schema and physical organization to reflect the changing needs of the organization, or to alter the physical organization to improve performance. Granting of authorization for data access By granting different types of authorization, the database administrator can regulate which parts of the database various users can access Routine maintenance
28.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.28 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Two and Three-tier Database Systems
29.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.29 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database System Internals
30.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.30 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Database Architecture The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by the underlying computer system on which the database is running: Centralized Client-server Parallel (multi-processor) Distributed
31.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.31 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition History of Database Systems 1950s and early 1960s: Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage Tapes provided only sequential access Punched cards for input Late 1960s and 1970s: Hard disks allowed direct access to data Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use Ted Codd defines the relational data model Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work IBM Research begins System R prototype UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
32.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.32 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition History (cont.) 1980s: Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems SQL becomes industrial standard Parallel and distributed database systems Object-oriented database systems 1990s: Large decision support and data-mining applications Large multi-terabyte data warehouses Emergence of Web commerce Early 2000s: XML and XQuery standards Automated database administration Later 2000s: Giant data storage systems Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
33.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.33 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition End of Chapter 1
34.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.34 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Figure 1.02
35.
©Silberschatz, Korth and
Sudarshan 1.35 Database System Concepts - 6th Edition Figure 1.04
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