University First Year level revision notes on Classical Sociological Theory. Contains notes on Karl Marx, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim among others. All notes come from university lecture notes and online research. Includes quotes from sociologists, a history of sociology, keywords and theories and ideas.

1. CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
BY CHRISSI KEOGH

2. THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD

3. What is the Enlightenment?
It occurred from 1600 to 1800; it was an intellectual period in Europe.
During in this era, revolutionary ideas regarding the relationship
between society and man evolved.
The time saw a generation of thinkers known as Philosophes that
happened across Paris; extending to Scotland and other countries in
Europe.
Philosophes (French for philosophers) were the intellectuals in the
Enlightenment period. These people applied reason to different
concepts such as economics, social issues, philosophy etc.
“Have courage to use your own reason” -Immanuel Kant

4. Key Concepts
Favouring Science over Religion; it was a time that
rejected ‘supernatural’ ideas.
Philosophers ideas had importance over Priests.
Belief that men-society relationship could be
perfect and productive.
Science was a superior concept.

5. Key Philosophes
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Voltaire (1694-1788)
David Hume (1711-1776)
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804)
Adam Smith (1723 – 1790)
Adam Ferguson (1723-1816)
Timeline
Industrial Revolution/Urbanisation
The American War of Independence
French Revolution
1760
1776
1789

6. The Birth of Sociology
“The Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century had
been critical and revolutionary, that of the
nineteenth century will be inventive and
constructive”- Saint-Simon (1760-1825).
Sociology is the idea that rational Science can be
applied to the social world to create progress and
an improved life

7. Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Grew up in the wake of the French Revolution.
As a person, he rejected religion and royalty and focused on studying society; this he named
Sociology.
During his young life the European society was experiencing alienation and violent conflicts.
Influenced by Henri de Saint-Simon.
Established a new religion of humanity based on Science.
Different ideas:
Theological- In this stage, anything that cannot be explained is put down to the supernatural. It is
divided into three stages: a) Fetishism: where man accepts existence of the soul or spirit. B)
Polytheism: where man begins to believe in magic. They believed in several Gods, created the class
of Priests and get the blessings of these Gods. C) Monotheism: Man believes there is only one centre
of power which controls the activities of the World. They believed in the power of a single God.
Metaphysical-In this stage it was believed that the an abstract power determines World events and
does not believe in one single God.
Positivism- No place for belief or superstition; everything is explained in a rational sense. Comte was
against all types of irrational elements in that of social thinking. It only takes into account logical or
mathematical proof; rejecting both theism and metaphysics.

8. EMILE
DURKHEIM
1858-1917

9. Social phenomena and societies cannot be
understood in reference to individuals.
Individuals are the products of society.
‘Social facts’ are facts that can be studied
scientifically. They influence the way individuals
act and how they think.
Humanity has a dual character; including the
capacity for morality and an insatiable appetite.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas

10. Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Religions represent the expression of moral codes, they
define acceptable behaviour and lay out what is socially
necessary.
Durkheim is also known as a ‘functionalist’.
Social facts have a cause and a function; the cause explains
the origin whereas the function explains the perseverance.
Durkheim explains how change is possible.
‘Utilitarians’ have the belief that industrialisation is
underlined by rational economic behaviour.

11. Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Society requires an increasing division of labour in order to maximise
production as well as increasing the amount of human happiness.
Vast amount of individuals become a social force and their behaviour
can be understood from a societal perspective.
In order for such a social force to exist; society itself must have
changed in some key respect.
There is not any evidence suggesting the sum of human happiness
has been increased by industrialisation.
In a study of suicide it was suggested that while individual cases may
be best explained by psychology; the social phenomenon of suicide
rates is best explained by sociology.

12. Social Change
Durkheim’s approach to human societies come in
two fundamental types; traditional and modern.
Firstly, traditional society can be categorised as
mechanical solidarity. This is due to the
resemblance of the members of society based on
functions and beliefs.
Furthermore, modern societies are can be
categorised as organic solidarity. This is the analogy
that relates to organs in the body; each have
separate functions yet are mutually dependent.

13. The division of labour exists yet the term does not
just refer to different jobs but instead the
institutions and functions within society.
The economic division of labour reflects societal
differentiation.
Societies either have to compete or co-operate in
order to survive. This is settled by the triumph of
morality over appetite.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas

14. Society experiences dysfunction and conflict
which is caused by the absence of established
normalities and functions. This state Durkheim
describes as ‘anomie’.
Durkheim’s theory of power and exploitation
needs developing. Often, he is considered a
defender of capitalism- a ‘conservative’ thinker.
He called himself a ‘socialist’ despite being
opposed to Marxism and communism.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas

15. THE MATERIALIST CONCEPTION OF HISTORY
KARL MARX
1818-1883

16. “Men can be distinguished from animals by
consciousness, by religion or anything else you
like. They begin to distinguish themselves from
animals as soon as they begin to produce their
means of subsistence, a step which is conditioned
by their physical organisation. By producing their
means of subsistence men are indirectly
producing their actual material life.” -Marx
[In McLellan, D. (1973) pp. 144-145]
Marx’s Quotes

17. “The human being is in the most literal sense a
zoon politikon (an animal which lives in
communities), not merely a gregarious animal,
but an animal which can individuate itself only
in the midst of society. Production by an
isolated individual outside society is as much of
an absurdity as is the development of language
without human beings living together and
talking to each other” -Marx
[In Callinicos, A. (1983) pp. 69]
Marx’s Quotes

18. Marx’s model is referred to as ‘base’ and
‘superstructure’ model.
Within said model, the material is referenced as
“means of production” and surrounds “forces of
production” and “objects of production”.
“Relations of production” refers to the social side.
“The mode of production” is the combination of
the relations and means of production that define
societies essential nature.
Marx’s Theories and Ideas

19. Primitive Communism: this concept originated from Marx and
‘Friedrich Engels’ both arguing that societies were originally
based on egalitarian (people who believed in equal
opportunities) social relations etc.
Antiquity: meaning the ancient past; prior to the middle ages.
Feudalism: a social system of the Middle Ages in which
people fought and worked for nobles who gave them land
use and protection in return.
Capitalism: is a political and economic system within which
the country’s industry and trade get controlled by private
owners (for profit) instead of by the state.
Modes of Production

20. In antiquity, plebeians (commoners) and slaves get
exploited by the upper classes; patricians.
In feudalism, the serfs (lowest feudal class) as well
as the peasants are exploited by aristocracy and
landowners.
In capitalism, the proletarians (industry workers)
are exploited by the bourgeoisie (capitalists).
Who Exploits Who?

21. Marx defines class as an objective representation
in relation to the means of production.
Marx also introduces the idea of “class
consciousness” in some works.
Class struggle transforms society; the material
factors within society are the determinants of what
is possible.
Marx’s Theories and Ideas

22. “In so far as there is merely a local
interconnection among these small holding
peasants, and the identity of their interests
begets no community, no national bond and no
political organisation among them, they do not
form a class.” -Marx
[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, A.
(1852)]
Marx’s Quotes

23. Within Marx’s theory there are two aspects; the
materialist and the humanist. These are also sometimes
known as ‘structure’ and ‘agency’.
Capitalism is based on production for ‘accumulation’
and capitalists themselves are continuously changing
the means of production.
Additionally, capitalism also creates new class i.e. the
proletariats.
Marx considers the material basis for creation of
classless societies a result of an absence of scarcity.
Marx’s Theories and Ideas

24. Throughout history there has been class struggles.
However, beneath that struggle is the development of
productive forces.
Feudalism created aspects of capitalism but the system itself
had to be eradicated in order for capitalism to thrive.
In the beginning capitalism was largely progressive, however,
after a while it puts a strain on further human development.
Technical developments within capitalism prove it is possible
creating a better world, although, whether it occurs depends
on active participation of people and class struggle.
Marx’s Theories and Ideas

25. “Men make their own history, but they do not
make it just as they please; they do not make it
under circumstances chosen by themselves,
but under circumstances directly encountered,
given and transmitted from the past.” -Marx
[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, A.
(1852)]
Marx’s Quotes

26. THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF
CAPITALISM
MAX WEBER
1864-1920

27. Weber rejects mono-casual explanations and
materialist conceptions (Marxist) of history. This is
based on the fact that they remove the human
elements in social action.
The correlation between capitalism and
Protestantism is accepted. Weber reverses the
Marxist view of base and superstructure.
Weber’s Theories and Ideas

28. He sees capitalism as a system within which the
goal is to maximise profits through peaceful means,
rational organisation of production and the use of
Science and technology.
He considers capitalism a system within which there
are not any limits on desires to accumulate.
Traditional limits/boundaries are no longer in
function.
Weber’s analysis of capitalism is extremely similar to
that of Karl Marx.
Weber’s Theories and Ideas

29. Weber highlights an affinity between the belief system of
Calvinists and the necessary behaviour of successful
capitalists.
Calvinist beliefs: an absolute God who is
incomprehensible to humans. God is divine while humans
are not and it is impossible to understand God’s ways.
Trying to understand His ways is considered arrogant.
This God is considered to have created the world and
universe for His own glory; all humans exist only to serve
the greater glory of God. God does not exist for humanity,
humanity exists for God.
Calvinists and Belief in God

30. The theory continues that we are all pre-destined to
either salvation or damnation. God has already
decided the fate on whether people should be
saved or damned. God’s decision cannot be
changed, or questioned as we cannot assume our
power is greater than His.
A small minority will be saved for heaven while the
vast majority is condemned to eternal damnation.
In addition, all pleasures of the flesh are considered
sinful.
Calvinists and Belief in God

31. These beliefs indirectly encourage investigation using
Science.
Having a belief in predestination creates a pathological
state of anxiety.
Calvinists overcome their anxiety by living a life of hard
work. Wealth gets accumulated rather than consumed.
Their behaviour is not logical but rather psychological;
Calvinists try to reassure themselves that they must be
an elected one for heaven.
Calvinists and Belief in God

32. Wealth accumulation, scientific investigation,
frugal consumption, strong productivity and
reinvestment are all the behaviours generated by
the Calvinist belief system; corresponding to the
requirements of capitalism.
Weber demonstrates that action can be shaped by
beliefs; he believes in the typology of action.
Calvinists and Belief in God

33. Traditional
Affective
Wetrational (value rational)
Zweckrational (instrumentally rational)
This idea fits with his idea of Verstehen.
Weber is not attempting to replace one mono-casual
explanation of history with another; he is suggesting that
there is non mono-casual explanation in the first place.
Typology of Action

34. While Weber is against the idea of determinism he
believes the future is going to experience
increasing rationalisation and bureaucratisation.
The effect of this is to destroy the human spirit
and create an “iron cage of bureaucracy”.
The Future is Bleak

35. CAPITALISM: A MARXIST ANALYSIS

36. Capitalism is a system that lacks a central organisation and
is made up of individual capitalist concerns; the main aim
is accumulation. There is a strong desire for profits.
These profits are the result of labour. The values of any
given thing is essentially determined by the necessary
amount of labour power needed to produce it.
Labour power is elastic.
Competition forces investment to create competitive edge.
Overall, this results in capitalism being more and more
productive and constantly increases technology.
What is Capitalism?
CAPITALISM

37. There tends to be a rise in the organic ratio of fixed capital in
relation to labour.
These usually lead to the rate of profit falling.
Therefore creating a crisis of overproduction and profit
squeeze; some companies go bankrupt.
However, each crisis is eventually overcome i.e. each slump
is eventually followed by a boom.
Capitalist state: the executive of the modern state, however,
it is a committee for managing bourgeoisie affairs.
The capitalist state attempts to overcome individual interests.
CAPITALISM

38. In the long-run, there is a tendency to incorporate
huge number of workers into huge productive
units and cities.
Additionally, there are constant tries to increase
exploitation which strives workers to organise as
well as defend their interests.
Due to capitalists forcing trade union issues on
workers; these workers learn their own power and
become class conscious.
CAPITALISM

39. The tendency for capitalism to centralise means
crises increase in severity, and the effects of each
crisis get more and more dramatic.
While the system may be able to recover, it leaves
many individuals unable to and in these cases
changing the system seems a more reasonable
solution.
Feudalism became an obstacle in human progress
and was violently eradicated- therefore for Marx’s
capitalism in its decline also became an obstacle
and has to be overthrown.
CAPITALISM

40. While creating the proletariat; capitalism creates issues
for itself. Marx believes this class will rise up and remove
capitalism; alike to when the bourgeoisie overthrew
feudalism. This will, in his theory, create a new era.
In proletariat terms the only solution is communism or
socialism.
Due to the lack of any private property there would be
no rich or poor, no masters over servants and ultimately
no inequality all together.
Despite these theories, Marx does no give a detailed
analysis of how communism would function in practise.
CAPITALISM

41. SUICIDE AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION: DURKHEIM

42. Emile Durkheim describes his position as
sociological rationalism.
“man is a product of history: there is nothing in him
that is either given or defined in advance” -
Durkheim [1979, pp. 69].
Demonstrating Sociological method:
Rules of Sociological Method (1895)
It argues that “the cause of sociology that is (i.e.)
objective, specific and methodical” -Durkheim [1982,
pp. 35].
Rationalist strategy to understand the social reality

43. ‘a thing originating in the
institutions or culture of a
society which affects the
behaviour or attitudes of an
individual member of that
society.’
Social facts have a
representational nature i.e.
they are signs of common
culture. E.g. law, language,
religious practises, the
division of labour and beliefs.
Social Facts
Bonds of Social
Solidarity
They determine the
extent to which
individuals are connected
to specific rules.
It is also the extent to
which individuals get
controlled by norms,
values of society and
social rules.

44. Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of
members in a society that share common beliefs
and values. The common values and beliefs
constitute a “collective conscience” that functions
internally in individual members allowing them to
cooperate.
Differentiation required a new form of solidarity i.e.
organic connection to community.
Social Relatedness

45. In the Division of Labour (1893) the relationship
between specialisation and differentiation of
function, secularisation, individualism and freedom
of markets.
Modern society contains certain pathological
features.
Relationship: Individual and Society

46. “every case of death resulting directly or indirectly from a
positive or negative act performed by the victim himself
and which strives to produce this result” -Durkheim
[In Aron (1970) pp. 35]
What causes suicide?
Social Phenomenon
Suicide is not seen as an expression of mental state/
individual pathologies
Balance between integration and regulation
Suicide (1897)

47. Egoistic: suicide occurs in a society which experiences excessive
individualism i.e. low social integration. Committed by people who are
not supported in a cohesive social group.
!
Altruistic: a term coined to describe suicide committed for the benefit of
others in a community e.g. self-sacrifice for military objectives in
wartime. It reflects a courageous indifference in the loss of a life.
Anomie (normlessness in contemporary world): a condition in which
social and moral normalities are unclear or not present. Lack of norms
lead to atypical behaviour.
Fatalistic (over-regulation): that occurs in social conditions where the
individual experiences prolonged unjust treatment. Durkheim considers
it the result of excessive regulation; when you are over-regulated in a
society.
Types of Suicide

48. Expression of a moral crisis in Western society.
Over integration and over-regulation can lead to pathological
consequences.
Critique
Durkheim places over-emphasis on the social causes.
Under representation of individual mental states.
Not enough recognition of the role of belief in determining
whether or not a death is considered a suicide.
Some factors of Durkheim’s studies need to be challenged.
Suicide and the Wider Society

49. THE CONCEPT OF ALIENATION: MARX

50. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels have had a
significant impact in current understandings of
modernity.
Contemporary society regularly uses the concept
of alienation.
Alienation highlights a sense of dissatisfaction with
experiences and lack of control or connection with
people/institutions.
The Concept of Alienation

51. Alienation is a central theme in Marx’s philosophy
of history.
There are themes of alienation in capitalism; the
origins do not exist within our psychology but
instead in social relations.
Marx’s goal was to understand as well as explain
what about capitalism is dysfunctional.
Why does Alienation occur?

52. The Economic and Philosophical Manuscript (1844)
Defines labour as: “mans self-confirming essence” -
Marx.
The basis of human labour involves culture, life and
the ability to engage with nature.
Labour is considered a fundamental part of our
existence.
Marx’s materialism: Human capacity to produce and
reproduce on the basis of existence; objective
activity in that of food, shelter and clothing.
Labour

53. It occurs when there is a lack of control, when the
ability to control ones life, environment, labour,
institutions and social relations is deprived.
It can also represent a sense of disconnection i.e.
separating oneself from others, the inability to
develop ones life.
Thesaurus: objectification, estrangement,
rationalism, anomie & fetishism.
Alienation as a Term

54. Influence of Ludwig Feuerbach.
Religion dissociates us from ourselves.
We project our power onto God- what we create dominates us.
Religion is considered the heart of a heartless world or the
spirit of an unspiritual situation.
“Religion is the self-conscious feeling of man who has not yet
either found himself or has already lost himself.” -Marx.
[In Elements of the Philosophy of Rights, (1835)]
Religions Involvement in Alienation

55. Forms of Alienation
A worker is alienated from the product of his labour i.e. the worker gets
objectified. The product being produced is therefore of higher
importance than whoever is producing it.
A worker is also alienated from the process of production. Therefore,
there is no internal satisfaction in working; the worker is externalised
from the process. Certain forms of work can create a sense of loss in
purpose and meaning for a worker, for instance, television sales.
Alienation can also be experienced in the sense of conscious productive
activity i.e. what distinguishes humans from other animals. The idea that
what is animal becomes human and what is human becomes animal.
Another form of alienation is in the sense of humans being alienated
from social communities and other people. ‘The basis of life under
capitalism is replaced individualism’.

56. Overall Concept
The overall idea of alienation is that control over
the world has been taken by capitalism i.e. in an
exploitive and egoistic way.
This negativity is shown through environmental
struggles we have, economic issues, social justice
and what we consume.

57. RATIONALISATION/DISENCHANTMENT: WEBER

58. Rationalisation
Rationalisation: Refers to the impact of planning
modern life.
Bureaucracy: is a form of administration that relies
on rules, regulations, chains of command,
hierarchies and guidelines.
Formal rationality: amount of quantitative
calculation & logical thought used when performing
administrative duties.
Substantive rationality: measures of ultimate values.

59. Individuals become more and
more insignificant due to large
administrative structures.
Reduced all value of non-
religious functional
bureaucracy.
Iron Cage McDonaldization
“The process by which the principles
of the fast-food restaurant are coming
to dominate more and more sectors
of American society as well as the
rest of the world” -George Ritzer.
Represents Weber’s bureaucratisation
and iron cage.
Rules, regulations and systems
predetermine the structure of the
production process.
It represents a loss of individual
choice and creativity.
Assembly line production of food
(from production to sales).

60. Disenchantment
Growth of Science takes over other ways of
understanding the world.
Science is unable to provide meaning to
substantive questions of how we should live or
how we should die.
Disillusionment: is the loss of an ethical
substantive value in Western culture.
Pessimistic outlook: our fate is characterised by
rationalisation and disenchantment of the world.

61. Weber’s Theories and Ideas
Individuals would have to find
meaning in modern life by finding
areas not colonised by
rationalisation.
World becoming dispirited.
Socialism is not a solution to
rationalisation & the loss of
meaning.