1. Article number: 0001850703
A&FH
Risk and Protective Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood: A Multi-ethnic Comparison
Stacy D Thompson, PhD, & Christine A Johnson, PhD
Abstract
Differences in risk and protective factors for adolescent parenting status among males were examined
using data from the NLSY79. This study compared males who became adolescent fathers to males who did not in
regards to risk factors related to adolescent childbearing. The sample included 5,760 males within four ethnic
groups: Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans and indicates that being married, living in poverty, living
with a single father, teen marijuana and cigarette use and illegal activity were risk factors for adolescent fatherhood
while father’s education and rural residence were protective factors depending on father’s race. Predictors varied for
each ethnic group. Implications are discussed.
Keywords: adolescent fathers, risk behaviors, adolescent childbearing, ethnic groups, protective factors, risk
factors
Adolescent & Family Health, 2009, 4(3), pp. 112-122
The past four decades have seen substantial Regarding adolescent fathers, the personal and societal
changes in adolescent sexual behavior. Research consequences of premature parenthood have been
indicates that adolescents are initiating sexual activity at ignored. The purpose of this paper is to examine the risk
younger ages, although they are engaging in safer sex. and protective factors related to adolescent fatherhood
Adolescent pregnancy declined 34% between 1991 and comparing four races.
2005; however, the trend reversed in 2006 in which the According to problem behavior theory, risk-
only adolescent age group who did not show an taking in adolescence represents an interaction of
increase in birth rates were 10-14 year olds (Hamilton, personal, physiological, genetic and environmental
Martin, & Ventura, 2007). Moreover, adolescent factors (Jessor & Jessor, 1977). Problem behavior has
pregnancy, birth, and abortion rates have been declining been defined as “behavior that is socially defined as a
since 1991 (Meschke, Bartholomae, & entall, 2000). problem, a source of concern, or as undesirable by the
Despite the fact that we have witnessed a downward norms of society and its occurrence usually illicits some
trend in adolescent pregnancy, this issue still remains a kind of social concern response” (Jessor & Jessor, 1977,
grave concern for our society. The public welfare costs p. 22). Precocious sexual behavior, especially that which
of adolescent pregnancy are significant given that 40 – leads to an unplanned pregnancy during adolescence,
50% of women who receive Temporary Assistance for has evoked social concern for the last three decades.
Needy Families (TANF) started parenting as adolescents Other adolescent behaviors such as marijuana use,
(www.acf.dhhs.gov/hypernews/tanfreaut/tanreaut/583- cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and delinquent
body.html). behaviors are also considered problem behaviors.
In 2002, 757,000 adolescents between ages 15- Recent research has begun to systematically
19 became pregnant in the United States and about half examine factors that may contribute to unintentional
gave birth (425,000; Ventura, Mathews, & Hamilton, adolescent pregnancies (Kotchick, Dorsey, Miller, &
2001; Ventura, Abma, Mosher, & Henshaw, 2006). The Forehand, 1999). These risk or vulnerability factors may
rates of adolescent pregnancy are significantly higher in include genetic, biological, behavioral, sociocultural,
the United States than for adolescents in other and demographic conditions, characteristics, or
developed countries (Ventura et al., 2001). Adolescent attributes. Risk or vulnerability represents a heightened
pregnancy results in a number of personal and societal probability of negative outcome based on the presence
problems. Adolescent mothers are more likely to of one or more such factors. Most problem behaviors
experience hardships in a number of areas compared to are developmentally organized as their rates usually
their non-childbearing peers. These include physical and increase with age and could in part be viewed as an
mental health, educational attainment, employment and aspect of growing up. Jessor and Jessor’s (1977)
income, and level of dependence and poverty (Meschke findings after studying adolescents at risk led them to
et al., 2000). In addition, compared to children of older suggest that the common basis for problem behaviors
mothers, the children of adolescent mothers are more was an underlying construct of unconventionality in
likely to experience poor health, inferior cognitive adolescence. Studies found unconventionality to be a
abilities, poor academic achievement, and social predictor of high levels of risk behavior in adolescence.
behavioral problems (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998). (Donovan & Jessor (1985); Donovan, Jessor, & Costa
112

2. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
1988). The theory of problem behavior has implications Capaldi & Owen, 2005). In fact, adolescent fathers are
for research on Black, Hispanic, Native American, and twice as likely to come from home environments that
White adolescent males’ risk behavior(s) leading to are not supportive of academic achievement (Dearden,
fatherhood. Identifying the variables that underlie Hale & Alvarez, 1992). Of the studies concerning the
premature fatherhood may facilitate a new approach to risk factors related to adolescent fatherhood, none
policy and prevention programs for adolescent males at have noted whether rural or urban residence were more
risk. likely to be predictors, rather several samples including
Despite the declining rates of adolescent adolescent fathers are obtained from urban
pregnancy and higher rates of birth control use populations, which is most likely due to convenience
associated with adolescent sexual behavior (Ventura et (Guagliardo et al., 1999; Resnick et al., 1993;
al., 2001), it is clear that adolescent pregnancy warrants Thornberry et al., 1997). Bennett, Skatrud, Guild, Loda,
further attention. Statistics on adolescent pregnancy & Klerman (1997) found that birthrates were higher in
only represent the mothers while neglecting the fathers. rural areas than in metropolitan areas for White and
Adolescent birth rate data are available for females but Black adolescent females in eight southeastern states
there is inadequate information concerning the number except for Blacks aged 15 to 17 years. Likewise,
of births born to adolescent males especially when the Vincent, Clearie, & Schlucter (1987) found adolescent
parents were not married and if the mother was under 20 pregnancy to be common in some rural communities.
years of age at the time of birth (Landry & Forrest,
1995). Thus, adolescent fathers appear to be socially Adolescent Risk-Taking Behaviors
invisible as most previous studies that focus on Adolescent males who become parents
adolescent pregnancy and parenting rarely mention the engage in more risk-taking behaviors. Findings from
fathers. This also includes prevention programs aimed several studies show adolescent fathers are more likely
at reducing adolescent pregnancy rates. This study to smoke, drink alcohol, and also report using LSD,
adds to the literature by comparing several races on the marijuana, cocaine, or other drugs (Christmon &
risk factors related to adolescent fatherhood. Luckey, 1994; Fagot et al., 1998; Guagliardo et al., 1999;
Resnick et al., 1993). Adolescent fathers have a higher
CORRELATES OF ADOLESCENT FATHERHOOD risk of unintentional injury and more arrests than their
non-parenting counterparts (Fagot et al., 1998).
Marital Status Additionally, adolescent males who engage in
The majority of adolescent pregnancies and delinquent behaviors are more likely to engage in early
births occur out-of-wedlock and most adolescent onset of sexual activity and are less likely to take
fathers do not marry the mothers of their first child precautions to avoid pregnancy and sexually
(Landry & Forrest, 1995; Smith, Jones, & Hall, 2001). transmitted diseases (Capaldi, Crosby, & Stoolmiller,
Furthermore, adolescent fathers have more sex partners, 1996).
more frequent intercourse, and are inconsistent condom
users (Guagliardo, Huang, & D’Angelo, 1999), which is Self-esteem
related to higher pregnancy risk. We know little about psychosocial
antecedents of adolescent pregnancy for males of
Family Background different races (Robbins, Kaplan, & Martin, 1985). A
Adolescent males who have a pregnant study by Pirog-Good (1995) used the National
girlfriend are more likely to come from families with low Longitudinal Survey of Youth Cohort (NLSY) data to
parental socioeconomic status (Pirog-Good, 1995; examine the family backgrounds and attitudes of 6,403
Pears, Pierce, Kim, Capaldi & Owen, 2005) and an adolescent fathers. Of particular interest, this study
absent father (Ku, Sonenstein, & Pleck, 1993). In one examined three key socioemotional well-being
study comparing adolescent fathers with older fathers, measures: self-esteem, locus of control, and sex-role
the adolescent fathers reported substantially lower beliefs. One interesting finding was that those males
family incomes than older fathers. Additionally, the who later became an adolescent father had the lowest
adolescent fathers were more likely to report being self-esteem.
homeless or describe their home environments as
unstable (Quinlivan &Condon, 2005) Thus, adolescent ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN ADOLESCENT
fathers were more likely to experience family instability. FATHERHOOD
Their parents were more likely to have achieved less Studies that have examined ethnic differences
years of education (Thornberry, Smith, & Howard, have focused primarily on Blacks and Whites, thereby
1997). These males are also more likely to have providing little information about adolescent fathers of
difficulties in school and experience academic failure Hispanic and Native American ethnic backgrounds. In
(Resnick, Chambliss, & Blum, 1993; Pears, Pierce, Kim, the present study socio-demographic variables are
A&FH V4 N3 113

3. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
tested for differences among adolescent males from METHOD
four ethnic groups (non-Hispanic Whites, non- The data for this study come from the National
Hispanic Blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans). Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79)
Comparative differences among these groups are not conducted by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of
well understood in their ability to predict adolescent Labor Statistics between 1979 and 1996, a public use
parental status. Very little research has examined risks data set used by multiple disciplines in research and
related to adolescent pregnancy in relation to race or public policy formation. The sample was drawn as a
cultural differences. For example, Thornberry et al.’s national probability sample from non-institutionalized
(1997) study examined African American and Hispanic young people living in the United States, with an over
adolescent fathers but did not compare the races sampling of Hispanics, Blacks, and economically
separately. The majority of studies concerning disadvantaged White youth. Respondents were 12,686
adolescent fathers focus on Blacks, Whites, and young men and women between the ages of 14 to 22
sometime Hispanics, rarely including other races, such when first surveyed in 1979, and 8,636 remained in the
as Native Americans. study in 1996 for a retention rate of 86.6%. Data was
Birth rates indicate that 479,067 adolescent collected annually from 1979 to 1994, and then every
females (aged 15 – 19 years) gave birth in 2000 with other year after 1994 (NLS, 1999). The NLSY79 data
78.9% born to unmarried mothers (Ventura et al., 2001). were weighted to reflect the nation as a whole;
Adolescent birth rates by race indicate that Hispanics therefore there were no biases to using this data as the
(94.4 per 1,000) and Blacks (79.2 per 1,000) have sample.
substantially higher adolescent birth rates compared to Adolescent fatherhood, the dependent
other ethnic groups. Native American adolescent birth variable, was defined as whether or not the respondent
rates were intermediate at 67.9 per 1,000 while Asian or had fathered a child by 19 years of age or younger. This
Pacific Islander adolescents have the lowest rate at 21.8 definition measures fatherhood exclusively in terms of a
births per 1,000. In 2000, the adolescent birth rate for live birth. The present sample examined only males and
Non-Hispanic Whites was 32.8 births per 1,000. The included 5,760 men, aged 23 – 31 in 1988, who had
National Survey of Family Growth also shows a greater completed their adolescent years. The sample was
rate of birth to Hispanic and blacks reporting that 25% 55.5% non-Hispanic White, 25.9% non-Hispanic Black,
of non-Hispanic black fathers had their first child 14.2% Hispanic, and 4.4% Native American. Asians
before the age of twenty, 19% of Hispanic fathers were not included in analyses due to a sample size that
became teenage fathers; 11% of non-Hispanic white was too small to permit analysis of race differences.
males became fathers as teenagers (National Center for Independent variables included the following: an
Health Statistics, 2006) adolescent marriage, socioeconomic status, rural
Black adolescent males are more sexually residence, living with a single parent at age 14, self-
experienced than Whites and Hispanics, and Hispanics esteem in 1980, cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use
are also more sexually experienced than Whites. In during adolescence, and illegal activity during
2005, sexually active Blacks were more likely to report adolescence. Socioeconomic status was defined by
using contraceptives than Whites and Hispanics whether or not the respondent lived below the poverty
(Eaton, Kann, Kinchen, Ross, Hawkins, Harris, et. al, line at age 14 and the educational attainment of his
2006). Another study examining adolescent parenthood parents.
and comparing races found differences between White
and Black adolescent fathers (Pirog-Good, 1995). RESULTS
Whites had lower self-esteem than their non-parenting
peers while Black adolescent fathers were not Descriptive Data
significantly different from their peers on self-esteem. Regarding adolescent parenthood, the average
White fathers were more likely to be externally age at first birth for those who became adolescent
controlled and have more conservative sex-role fathers was 17.9 years with the ages ranging from 11 to
attitudes than their non-parenting peers, while Black 19 years of age. The average age at the time their first
fathers were similar to their nonparenting peers on child was born was 18.22 years for Whites, 17.60 years
locus of control and sex-role attitudes. Those for Blacks, 18.10 years for Native Americans and 17.98
adolescents from unstable, poor and minority homes years for Hispanics (see Table 1). Forty-nine percent
were more likely to become parents prematurely. (49.4%) of the adolescent fathers were married during
Objectives of our study include 1) comparison their adolescence compared to 5.5% of the non-
of the differences among adolescent males who became adolescent fathers (see Table 2). White, Hispanic, and
parents compared to those who did not, and 2) the Native American fathers had high adolescent marital
identification of risk and protective factors for rates at 73.4%, 67.8%, and 63.3%, respectively, while
adolescent male parental status among each ethnic only 15.2% of Black adolescent fathers reported being
group. married. This compares to 6.4% (White), 2.1% (Black),
A&FH V4 N3 114

4. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
Tabl 1 .Pr val nce of A dol scent Fat er ood by Et ni i y and A ge at
e e e e h h h ct non-parenting peers. Hispanic adolescent fathers were
Fi st Bi t
r rh less likely to live in rural areas (6.4%) compared to their
A ge at Fi st Bi t
r rh
W hi e
t Bl ck
a H i pani
s c N at ve A m er can
i i non-parenting peers (13.8%). The percentage living in
( = 245)
n ( = 243)
n ( = 109)
n ( = 30)
n
rural areas was highest among Native American
11 0 1 0 0 adolescent fathers, 33.0%, compared to 28.3% of Native
12 0 1 0 0 Americans who did not have a child.
13 0 1 0 0 Living arrangements at age 14 revealed that
14 0 6 0 0 21.5% of the fathers were living in a single mother-
15 5 8 4 1
headed household compared to 16.4% of the non-
fathers. White, Hispanic, and Native Americans
16 11 33 6 0
adolescent fathers were slightly more likely to live in a
17 28 43 22 8
single mother-headed household compared to their non-
18 81 72 33 7 parenting peers (13.9% versus 10.9% for Whites; 21.1%
19 120 78 44 14 versus 18.2% for Hispanics; 16.7% versus 12.5% for
M ean age at f r t
is Native Americans). There was very little difference in
18. 2
2 17. 0
6 17. 8
9 18. 0
1
bi t
rh the percent of Black adolescent fathers living in a single
5.8% (Hispanic), 11.6% (Native American) and of the mother-headed household (29.9%) compared to their
non-fathers. non-parenting peers (29.2%).
Adolescent males who were fathers were more Regarding male adolescents living with a single
likely to be living in poverty, 35.8%, than non-fathers, father-headed household at age 14, 2.2% of the fathers
24.0%. White adolescent fathers were almost twice as were living in a single father-headed household
likely to live in poverty compared to their non- compared to 1.2% of the non-fathers. White, Black, and
parenting peers, 30.3% versus 15.5%. Forty-two Native American adolescent fathers were slightly more
percent (42.2%) of Black adolescent fathers were living likely to live in a single father-headed household
in poverty compared to 37.5% who did not have a compared to their non-parenting peers (2.4% versus
child. Hispanic fathers and non-fathers had almost no 1.2% for Whites; 2.5% versus 1.3% for Blacks; 3.3%
difference in poverty rates while among Native versus 0.9% for Native Americans). Hispanic adolescent
Americans, 36.7% of adolescent fathers were living in fathers were slightly less likely to live in a single father-
poverty compared to 23.3% of non-adolescent fathers. headed household compared to their non-parenting
On average, adolescent fathers’ parents had peers (0.9% compared to 1.3%, respectively).
about one year less education than their non-parenting Mean self-esteem scores for both adolescent
peers’ parents did (11.03 years compared to 10.01 years fathers and non-fathers were very similar at 25.06 and
for mothers and 11.11 years compared to 9.59 years for 25.08, respectively. Scores within each ethnic group
mothers). For Whites, adolescent fathers’ mothers and were also very similar.
fathers had fewer years of education (10.68 years and Mean age at first cigarette, alcohol, and
19.22) compared to non-adolescent fathers’ mothers marijuana use was calculated for those who reported
and fathers (11.86 years and 12.05). Black adolescent use. Average age at first cigarette use was actually
fathers’ parents had fewer years of education (10.58 higher among adolescent fathers, 11.47 years, compared
years for mothers and 10.01 years for fathers) to non-adolescent fathers, 10.77 years. This pattern was
compared to their non-parenting peers (10.99 years for found among Whites and Blacks. However, Hispanic
mothers and 10.54 years for fathers). This pattern held adolescent fathers had a younger average age at first
for Hispanic fathers whose parents had the lowest cigarette use (10.79 years) compared to their non-
mean years of education (7.56 years for mothers and parenting peers (11.15 years). The average age at first
7.34 years for fathers) compared to their non-parenting cigarette use was also younger for Native American
peers’ parents (7.76 years for mothers and 8.42 years adolescent fathers (10.37 years) than non-adolescent
for fathers). Native American fathers’ parents had fathers (10.49 years).
lower mean years of education (9.90 years for mothers Mean age at first alcohol use (14.79 years) was
and 9.11 years for fathers) compared to years of Native lower for adolescent fathers compared to adolescent
American males’ parents (10.74 years for mothers and non-fathers (15.11 and 15.54 years, respectively). Native
10.41 years for fathers). American fathers had the youngest average age at first
Adolescent fathers were more likely to be alcohol use at 13.93 years compared to 14.97 years for
living in rural areas (21.6%) than non-fathers (17.2%). their non-parenting peers. Whites and Hispanics also
White fathers (26.1%) and non-fathers (24.7%) had had a younger age at first alcohol use for adolescent
almost no difference in the percentage living in rural fathers (14.44 years for Whites, 14.26 years for
areas. Black adolescent fathers were also less likely to Hispanics) compared to non-adolescent fathers (15.25
live in rural areas, 11.1%, compared to 17.5% of their years for Whites, 14.80 years for Hispanics). For Blacks
A&FH V4 N3 115

5. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
Tabl 2.D escr pt ve D at Com par ng A dol scent W ho Becam e Par nt t A dol scent W ho D i N ot by Et ni G r up
e i i a i e s e s o e s d , h c o
% Si gl Par nt
n e e
% Teen A ge at 1st Bi t
rh % Poor % R ur l
a % Il gal
le
N % H om e
M ar i ge
ra M ean ( D )
S @ 14 @ 14 A ct vi y
i t
M ot er Fat er
h / h
N on- ar nt
P e s
W hi e,
t
2949 92.
3 6.
4 n/a 15.
5 24.
7 10. / . 2
9 12 15.
6
N on- i pani
Hs c
Bl ck,
a
1249 83.
7 2.
1 n/a 37.
5 17.
5 29. / . 8
2 12 12.
3
N on- i pani
Hs c
H i pani
s c 711 86.
7 5.
8 n/a 35.
6 13.
8 18. / . 7
2 12 15.
0
N at ve
i
224 88.
2 11.
6 n/a 23.
3 28.
3 12. / .
5 09 25.
0
A m er can
i
Tot l
as 5133 89.
1 5.
5 n/a 24.
0 21.
6 16. / . 3
4 12 15.
2
Teen Par nt
e s
W hi e,
t
245 7.
7 73.
4 18. 2( . 6)
2 09 30.
3 26.
1 13. / .
9 24 29.
1
N on- i pani
Hs c
Bl ck,
a
243 16.
3 15.
2 17. 0( . 3)
6 14 42.
2 11.
1 29. / .
9 25 25.
1
N on- i pani
Hs c
H i pani
s c 109 13.
3 67.
8 17. 8( . 8)
9 10 34.
0 6.
4 21. / .
1 09 22.
0
N at ve
i
30 11.
8 63.
3 18. 0( . 8)
1 10 36.
7 33.
3 13. / .
7 33 43.
3
A m er can
i
Tot l
as 627 10.
9 49.
4 17. 3( . 1)
9 12 35.
8 17.
2 21. / . 3
5 22 27.
0
however, average age at first alcohol use was higher discrepancy occurred for Native Americans with 43.3%
among adolescent fathers (15.51 years) compared to of adolescent fathers reporting illegal activity compared
non-adolescent fathers (14.95 years). to 25.0% of non-adolescent fathers.
Average age at first marijuana use was
younger for adolescent fathers, 14.89 years, compared Logistic Regression Predicting Adolescent Father
to non-adolescent fathers, 15.54 years. This pattern Status
held within each ethnic group, with the largest Logistic regression was used to understand
discrepancy occurring between Black adolescent which variables are predictors of adolescent
fathers (14.91 years) and non-fathers (15.84 years). parenthood (with adolescent parenthood used as the
Adolescent fathers had a higher rate of dependent variable). First, logistic regression was run
engaging in illegal activities and being arrested for an on the entire sample with ethnicity as a predictor
illegal activity during adolescence with 27.0% of variable (ethnicity was dummy coded so that Whites
adolescent fathers reporting such activity compared to were the control group). Teen marriage (teen marriage =
15.2% of their non-parenting peers. This pattern 1), poverty status (poverty = 1), rural residence at 14
appeared within each ethnic group. The largest (rural = 1), being raised by a single parent (single = 1),
A&FH V4 N3 116

6. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
Tabl 2.D escr pt ve D at Com par ng A dol scent W ho Becam e Par nt t A dol scent W ho D i N ot by Et ni
e i i a i e s e s o e s d , h c
G r up ( on')
o c t
Year M ot er Year Fat er
s h s h
Sel - st em
fE e A ge 1st A l ohol
c A ge 1st Sm oke A ge 1st M ar j ana
iu
Educat on
i Educat on
i
M ean ( D )
S M ean ( D )
S M ean ( D )
S M ean ( D )
S
M ean ( D )
S M ean ( D )
S
N on- ar nt
P e s
W hi e,
t
11. 6( . 0)
8 24 12. 5( . 6) 25. 8( . 2)
0 32 1 14 15. 5( . 6)
2 49 10. 0( . 3)
5 55 15. 4( . )
4 24
N on- i pani
Hs c
Bl ck,
a
10. 9( . 2)
9 24 10. 4( . 1) 24. 5( . 4)
5 29 9 16 14. 5( . 3)
9 59 11. 4( . 6)
2 62 15. 4( . 8)
8 25
N on- i pani
Hs c
H i pani
s c 7. 6( . 7)
7 44 8. 2( . 5)
4 45 24. 8( . 9)
8 14 14. 0( . 1)
8 57 11. 5( . 8)
1 62 15. 1( . 9)
7 24
N at ve
i
10. 4( . 9)
7 23 10. 1( . 8) 25. 6( . 6)
4 35 0 13 14. 7( . 4)
9 49 10. 9( . 0)
4 54 14. 0( . 7)
4 32
A m er can
i
Tot l
as 11. 3( . 6)
0 30 11. 1( . 3) 25. 8( . 9)
1 36 0 14 15. 1( . 0)
1 53 10. 7( . 3)
7 58 15. 4( . 5)
5 25
Teen Par nt
e s
W hi e,
t
10. 8( . 3)
6 21 10. 2( . 6) 25. 7( . 9)
2 33 2 14 14. 4( . 1)
4 52 11. 4( . 6)
3 43 14. 6( . 1)
8 25
N on- i pani
Hs c
Bl ck,
a
10. 8( . 4)
5 23 10. 1( . 0) 24. 1( . 5)
0 26 9 16 15. ( . 3)
546 12. 3( . 7)
0 54 14. ( . 8)
925
N on- i pani
Hs c
H i pani
s c 7. 6( . 2)
2 36 7. 4( . 5)
3 42 24. 8( . 4)
9 17 14. 6( . 2)
2 54 10. 9( . 3)
7 61 15. 9( . 7)
1 28
N at ve
i
9. 0( . 6)
9 27 9. 1( . 0)
1 33 24. 4( . 4)
8 14 13. 3( . 9)
9 45 10. 7( . 8)
3 41 14. 8( . 2)
1 33
A m er can
i
Tot l
as 10. ( . 5)
028 9. 9( . 3)
5 34 25. 6( . 0)
0 16 14. 9( . 2)
7 50 11. 7( . 6)
4 51 14. 9( . 8)
8 25
cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use (teen use = 1), and by almost two times whereas living with a single mother
illegal activity (teen onset = 1) were dichotomous had no significant effect on adolescent fatherhood.
predictor variables. When examining substance use, marijuana use
Being married, poverty status, living with a increased (by 1.33 times) the likelihood of adolescent
single father, teen marijuana use and illegal activity fatherhood, while cigarette and alcohol use was not
were significantly related to an increased risk of significant. Likewise, adolescent fatherhood was
adolescent fatherhood. Father’s education, and living increased by the engagement in illegal activity. Higher
in a rural area were significantly related to a decreased levels of father’s education somewhat decreased the
risk of adolescent fatherhood (see Table 3). odds of being an adolescent father. Living in a rural
Being married resulted in an increased risk for area decreased the odds of becoming an adolescent
adolescent fatherhood, over 29 times the risk. Poverty father by almost half (68%). Self-esteem and mother’s
status increased the odds of being an adolescent father education level had no significant effect on adolescent
by one and a half times. Living with a single father fatherhood.
increased the odds of becoming an adolescent father
A&FH V4 N3 117

7. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
N at ve
i
Var abl
i e A l M al s
l e W hi es
t Bl cks
a H i pani s
s c
A m er cans
i
29. 0
4 40. 0
1 10. 7
2 39. 8
6 19. 7
0
Teen M ar i ge
ra
( 3. 60 - 037. 8) ( 3. 6 - 37. 8) ( . 5 - 17. 7)
2 0 4 2 0 4 59 4 ( 2. 3 - 69. 6)
2 7 2 ( . 6 - 52. 4)
69 2
1. 9
4 1. 7
8
Pover y St t s
t au n/s n/s n/s
( . 0 - 1. 6)
12 8 ( . 5 - 2. 0)
12 8
M ot ers Educat on
h ' i n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s
0. 4
9 0. 4
9
Fat ers Educat on
h ' i n/s n/s n/s
( . 1 - 0. 7)
09 9 ( . 9 - 1. 0)
08 0
0. 8
6 0. 6
5 0. 3
3
R ur l
a n/s n/s
( . 2 - 0. 9)
05 8 ( . 6 - 0. 8)
03 8 ( . 2 - 0. 5)
01 8
Si gl M ot er
n e h n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s
1. 9
9
Si gl Fat er
n e h n/s n/s n/s n/s
( . 0 - 3. 6)
10 9
Sel - st em 1980
fE e n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s
Teen A l oholU se
c n/s n/s n/s n/s n/s
1. 3
6
Teen Ci ar t e U se
g et n/s n/s n/s n/s
( . 8 - 2. 4)
10 4
1. 2
3 1. 7
7 3. 0
0
Teen M ar j ana U se
iu n/s n/s
( . 3 - 1. 7)
10 6 ( . 8 - 2. 5)
11 6 ( . 6 - 8. 0)
10 5
2. 9
0 1. 8
7 1. 7
3 2. 0
4
Il galA ct vi y
le i t n/s
( . 5 - 2. 4)
16 6 ( . 0 - 2. 4)
12 6 ( . 4 - 3. 1)
16 4 ( . 4 - 4. 6)
12 6
N agel er e R2
k k 0. 5
3 0. 5
4 0. 3
1 0. 6
4 0. 0
4
When race was included as a predictor of variables are better predictors of adolescent fatherhood
adolescent fatherhood, (Whites were used as the for Whites (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.45) and Native Americans
referent group) results revealed that Native Americans (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.40).
were almost three and one-half times more likely to Logistic regression analyses showed each
become adolescent fathers relative to Whites. Being ethnic group had different predictors for adolescent
Black or Hispanic did not significantly increase the odds fatherhood. Interestingly, being married significantly
of becoming an adolescent father. increased the incidence of adolescent parenting for all
males, especially for Whites (40.10) and Hispanics
Risk Factors for Adolescent Fatherhood by Ethnic (39.68) and was a risk factor for adolescent fatherhood
Group for all four groups. Poverty was a predictive factor for
Next separate logistic regression analyses were Whites (1.87) only and increased the odds of an
conducted for each ethnic group. R2s indicate that the adolescent pregnancy by almost twice. Higher father’s
independent variables best reduce the likelihood of error education level reduced the odds of an adolescent
in prediction of adolescent fatherhood for Hispanics (R2 becoming a father for Blacks (0.94) only however, non-
= 0.46). Most of this influence is from adolescent significant results were found for mother’s education
marriage and illegal activity. However, Blacks had the level for all race groups. Blacks (0.56) and Hispanics
least amount of error accounted for in the model with (0.33) had lower odds of becoming an adolescent father
13% of the variance accounted for by the variables. The if they lived in a rural area. For Whites and Native
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8. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
Americans, there was no significance for rural & Forrest, 1995; Smith et al., 2001). More likely marriage
residence. follows the pregnancy or birth, which may be why
Living in a single parent household with adolescent marriage is a risk factor for adolescent
either a mother or father was not significant for any parenthood although nearly 80% of adolescent fathers
race. The adolescent fathers did not have lower self- do not marry the mothers of their first child (Smith et
esteem than non-adolescent fathers and this factor did al., 2001). Berry, Shillington, Peak and Hohman (2000)
not increase the odds of an adolescent pregnancy found that adolescent marriage increased the odds of
among any of the four ethnic groups. Teen alcohol use an adolescent pregnancy for all ethnic groups of
was not a significant risk factor of teen fatherhood for adolescent females; the current study also found
any of the ethnic groups. However, teen cigarette use adolescent marriage to increase the odds of having a
increased the odds of adolescent fatherhood for Blacks child during adolescence for all ethnic groups. It
(1.63) only, while marijuana use increased the odds for should be noted that there may be a significant
Whites (1.77) and Native Americans (3.00) only. difference in the male whose partner actually carries a
Hispanics had no statistically influential results pregnancy to term compared to those who do not, and
regarding substance use. Illegal activity was related to since the current study examined those who actually
increased odds of adolescent fatherhood for all groups became parents, this group could be distinctly
except Native Americans. Illegal activity increased the different. Additionally, it should be noted that the
odds of adolescent fatherhood for Whites (1.78), factors that are related to adolescent motherhood are
Blacks (1.37) and Hispanics (2.40). likely to be different from those of adolescent
The results of the logistic regression indicate fatherhood.
differences between the ethnic groups in the risk
factors for adolescent fatherhood by race. For Whites, Poverty Status
marital status, poverty status, teen marijuana use and A factor related to the increase in the
illegal activity were risk factors. There were no likelihood for adolescent pregnancy for Whites was
protective factors for Whites. Marital status, teen living below the poverty line at age 14. This was only
cigarette use and illegal activity were risk factors for significant for Whites. Those who live in poverty often
Blacks while father’s education and rural residence at have fewer resources available as well as less
age 14 were protective factors for adolescent education leading to the lack of long-term goals.
fatherhood. For Hispanics, being married and illegal
activity were risk factors while living in a rural Substance use
residence at age 14 was a protective factor. Only Not surprisingly, substance use was related to
marijuana use and marital status during adolescence higher risk of adolescent parenthood. Black adolescent
influenced the likelihood of adolescent parenthood for males who began smoking during adolescence are more
Native American males. likely to become an adolescent father, while White and
Native American adolescent males who used marijuana
DISCUSSION during adolescence are more likely to become parents.
Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood is a
complicated issue that has defied most solutions. Illegal A activity
Research on adolescent parenting has focused For each ethnic group except Native
primarily on the mother with the fathers being sadly Americans, illegal activity was significantly related to
ignored. This study seeks to fill that gap by providing an increased risk of adolescent fatherhood. It is
an investigation of the risk and protective factors that possible that those males engaging in illegal behaviors
are related to adolescent males becoming a father. also engage in other risk behaviors, such as
There were some similarities between races in unprotected sex. Capaldi, Crosby, and Stoolmiller (1996)
protective and risk factors related to becoming an found that males who engaged in antisocial behaviors
adolescent parent and several differences and substance use were engaged in sexual activity at
younger ages.
Risk Factors
Protective Factors
Teen marriage
Results revealed that being married Father’s Education
significantly increased the odds of becoming an Father’s education level slightly decreased the
adolescent father, regardless of race, by 10 to 40 times. likelihood of an adolescent birth for only Blacks. The
Data on adolescent childbearing reveals that the more education the Black adolescent male’s father, the
majority are unwed when a pregnancy occurs (Landry lower the odds that his son would become an
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9. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
adolescent father. Mother’s education, though, had no Limitations
significant effect on adolescent males’ fatherhood Although this data comes from a national data
status. set and is representative of the population from which
it was drawn, using secondary data limits the variables
Rural Residence that are available and how they are operationalized. For
Living in a rural area decreased the risk of an example, information on a pregnancy of a partner may
adolescent pregnancy by almost half and two-thirds for have provided different results, but only age at first
Blacks and Hispanics, respectively. Rural residence was birth was available. Over 50% of all adolescent
not significant for Whites and Native Americans. It may pregnancies end in miscarriage or abortion. Those
be reasonable to think of rural residence as having a males who had a partner become pregnant may be
decreased rate of adolescence due to more roles for the different from those males who had a partner give birth.
youth such as sports, academics, etc (Garbarino, 1980). Also, age at first intercourse as well as the age of their
Rural areas may have more activities for adolescents to first partner may have been risk factors related to
engage in and more monitoring by not only parents but adolescent parenthood. Another limitation is the fact
also others in the community, which may limit that the data are self-reported with sensitive
opportunities to engage in those activities related to information being requested therefore participants may
premature parental status. not be as forthcoming with their responses, and thus
may be under-reporting risky behaviors, including
Insignificant Factors being an adolescent father.
Variables that were not significantly related to Another limitation is the data used were
adolescent fatherhood were mother’s education, living collected over 20 years ago and several societal trends
with a single mother or a single father, self-esteem, and have occurred in the years since. One is the increased
alcohol use. Interestingly alcohol use was not a risk number of diagnoses of AIDS and HIV related to
factor although alcohol lowers inhibition and is more increased use of prophylactics during intercourse
likely to be related to unprotected sex (Neff & (Piccinino & Mosher, 1998) possibly leading to changes
Crawford, 1998). The impact of a father’s presence in risk behaviors. There has also been a decline in
during a male’s adolescence should be an important adolescent pregnancy which is related to two social
protective factor for preventing premature pregnancies, issues: changes in sexual behavior (such as
but was not. Similarly, the absence of a father in a abstinence) and contraceptive use (Alan Guttmacher
single mother household was not a significant risk Institute, 1994). The strong economy of the past few
factor. The level of self-esteem was similar among those years may also have contributed to the decline in
who became adolescent fathers and those who did not, adolescent pregnancy rates due to the improved career
and therefore it was not a protective factor. opportunities to young people.
Similarities and Differences by Race of Adolescent Implications
Males Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing
The only risk factor that was significant across continues to be a social problem worthy of study.
all races was being married. It had a very large effect for Previous work has taken into account factors related to
all race groups with Whites and Hispanics having the adolescent mothers’ childbearing and parenting far
highest probability (40 times) and Blacks the lowest (10 more than that of adolescent fathers. Future work in the
times) and Native Americans somewhere in between. area should continue to focus on adolescent fathers in
Engaging in illegal activity was a significant risk factor addition to adolescent mothers.
for all racial groups except Native Americans. This About half of the fathers of infants born to
variable doubled the probability of adolescent adolescent mothers are adolescents themselves (Elo,
fatherhood for Hispanics and nearly doubled it for King, & Furstenberg, 1999; Kaplan et al. 2001; Ventura,
Whites. For Whites, poverty status and adolescent Martin, Curtin, Mathews, & Park, 2000). What makes
marijuana use were also significantly related to these adolescent males unique from their peers? The
increased likelihood of becoming a father. For Blacks, findings presented here suggest that several factors
teen cigarette use increased the odds of becoming an may be involved with increasing or decreasing the odds
adolescent father, while father’s education and rural of being an adolescent father, depending on their race,
residence decreased the odds. For Hispanics’ rural and therefore, there is no simple prevention strategy.
residence decreased the odds of adolescent The United States has recently witnessed the lowest
parenthood. For Native Americans, marijuana use was rates of adolescent pregnancy and birth in 20 years
significantly related to adolescent parental status. (Ventura, Mosher, Curtin, & Abma, 2001). This is mostly
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10. Article number: 0001850703 Risk Factors Related to Adolescent Fatherhood
due to better contraceptive use and also to increased because those males who marry may be marrying as a
abstinence among youth due to changing attitudes result of an unplanned pregnancy. The adolescent
towards premarital sex (Ventura et al., 2001). Even so, females may likely be the gatekeepers of sexual activity,
these results indicate that there are several risk and therefore changing their attitudes may change their
protective factors to consider in pregnancy prevention behaviors surrounding sexual activity with their
programs aimed at adolescent males. partners. This is a complicated and sensitive issue that
Pregnancy prevention programs need to be is worthy of further investigation.
aimed at males as well as females and should take into Lastly, rural residence for Blacks and
account the ethnic and cultural factors that are related Hispanics and higher father education for Blacks
to adolescent parenting rates. Prevention programs decreased the odds of adolescent fatherhood. Fathers
need to begin early and should vary depending on the of adolescent Black males who have more education
population served. Those White adolescent males who may create an environment that provides a more
grow up in poverty, Black adolescent males who use promising view of life that the adolescent could achieve
cigarettes White and Native American adolescent males with an education. The adolescent may be warned
who use marijuana, and White, Black and Hispanic about the consequences a premature pregnancy and
adolescent males involved in illegal activity should be birth would bring to his goals. Those adolescents
targeted, as they are at increased risk. living in rural residence may have more roles feeling as
Another issue to address is the partner of if they are a valued member of the community whereas
these males. The present study found that being those in urban areas may have more difficulties feeling
married was a significant risk factor for males, as they unique and special. This is a multifaceted problem
were more likely to be married to the mother of their first complicated by the interaction of personal,
child, and married adolescent males are at least 10 times physiological, genetic and environmental factors. The
more likely to become an adolescent father. The risk solution is long-term and needs to begin during
factor of adolescent marriage observed here may be childhood.
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