1. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students
Michaela Hylen
Truman State University

2. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 1
When people hear the phrase “language immersion school” a variety of thoughts may
come to mind. “What is that?” some may ask. Others may think of Mexican immigrant children
sitting in a classroom learning in Spanish. And yet others might imagine students in a class with
a teacher speaking quickly in French or even Japanese. No matter what idea of a language
immersion school comes to mind, there are few people who entirely know the variety of options
available and effects of these schools. From French to Chinese to Russian to Spanish and
everything in between, students in immersion schools not only are learning to be well versed not
only in language acquisition but in all subjects of their education.
First, what is a language immersion school? According to Robert Keith Johnson and
Merrill Swain there are eight defining features of an immersion school, and they are as follows:
1. A second language (L2) is the medium of instruction.
2. The immersion curriculum parallels the local L1 curriculum.
3. Overt support exists for the first language (L1) of the students.
4. The program aims for additive bilingualism.
5. Exposure to the L2 is largely confined to the classroom.
6. Students enter with similar (and limited) levels of L2 proficiency.
7. The teachers are bilingual.
8. The classroom culture is that of the local L1 community, not that of the TL (target
language) culture.
These eight criteria limit what qualifies as an immersion school [Tedick, 585]. For example,
classrooms for immigrant (or minority-speaking) students taught entirely in English is not
considered an immersion program because even though English would be a second language
(L2) for the students the exposure to this L2 is not confined to the classroom, teachers might not
be bilingual, and the classroom culture is that of the U.S. and not the first language (L1) culture
of the students [Tedick, 585]. Take for example California’s Proposition 227, this proposition

3. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 2
was the California school districts’ attempt at creating equality education for minority students
without having to put in the extra money for more programs. This law defined the programs they
had for the Chinese immigrant students as English immersion programs. The students were to
take one year of schooling entirely in English to catch them up to standards of other children
their ages, then they were forced into regular classrooms. Although this kind of program is close
to an immersion course, it is not quite the same as a true immersion program because of lack of
support for the students’ L1 (and Proposition 227 did not provide equal education for immigrant
students) [Tedick, 585]. Based on the qualifications above, however, there can be a variety of
different types of immersion programs depending on the intent of the program and the language
in which courses are taught.
Immersion in a foreign language programs are not the most common type of language
immersion program, but they are becoming more popular among middle to upper class families.
These programs are ones such that the L1 speakers learn in a language “foreign” to their culture,
for example, in the U.S. programs taught in French or Japanese [Tedick, 585]. These types of
programs are particularly inviting for wealthier families who want their child to be cultured or to
have a leg-up in the business world.
Majority-language immersion for students in a minority language is another program type
that is widely popular around the globe, more so in other countries than the United States. In
these sort of programs L1 students are instructed in the L2 for political, social, or economic
reasons [Tedick, 585]. For example, in Asiatic countries English immersion programs are widely
popular because English is a language of power (sociopolitical reasons). A problem arose in
Hong Kong where the demand for English immersion schools far exceeded the availability of the
schools [Tedick, 586]. Another example of English immersion for sociopolitical reasons is seen

4. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 3
in Singapore where there are an incredulous amount of native and national languages. However,
the Singapore education system is English dominant to attempt to unite people and communities
under a common language [Tedick, 586]. Majority-language immersion for minority-language
students is a fairly common solution to problems of multiple national and native languages.
The final common model of language immersion programs is the bilingual immersion.1
Bilingual immersion involves native speakers of the target language (TL) maintaining their L1
while another group of students in the same student body is immersed in the TL (their L2)
[Tedick, 586]. This system is becoming more popular in the U.S. with Spanish to help Spanish-
speaking students, but the system was originally intended to give additional bilingual education
to both majority and minority-language speakers [Tedick, 586]. Bilingual immersion is popular
in many countries where there are two (or more) common languages, such as Canada with
English-French and the United States with English-Spanish.
The growth of immersion schools stems from a country with a history of bilingualism.
Immersion programs first became prominent in Canada in the 1960s, and with this spreading of
programs the research of these schools grew as well [Cummings]. In Canada, immersion schools
were started for students whose home language was English, the classes being taught in French.
These French schools (and the most common form of curriculum currently in immersion
schools) start students in early grades learning in the L2 for at least 50% of the time. Usually the
first two years are taught with no L1 but gradually increase exposure and classes in the L1 until
the majority of high school classes are taught in the L1 [Cummings]. For example, kindergarten
and first grade are taught entirely in French, then second and third grade add an English language
arts class. This curriculum is common across types of immersion programs, no matter the
1
The examples of program types given here are by no means the only three types. There are many, many
more program examples, but this paper is only given to examine these three.

5. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 4
language or intent of the program, and because of this 64% of immersion schools in the U.S. are
elementary level, 22% are junior high, and 8% are high school [Downs-Reid, 1]. As L1
instruction becomes more necessary and expected, L2 instruction reduces, thus immersion
schools at older ages are fewer and farther between than elementary immersion schools.
Various concerns arise from the idea of immersion programs. Parents are often concerned
that their child will fall behind their peers in their L1, that the child’s interpersonal skills will lag,
or that achievement level in math, science, and social studies of a child in an immersion school
will be below in an regular school because they cannot understand the means of communication.
There are numerous other worries involved with immersion programs, but addressing these three
will lead to answering the others.
First, L1 proficiency of immersion students seems to not be affected by learning in
another language. Studies have shown that L1 proficiency of a student in an immersion program
is not significantly behind non-immersion peers. By fourth and fifth grades students in
immersion programs are usually at the same level as their normal education counterparts in
scores on standardized tests in English [Cummings 1998]. This is because studies argue that
language proficiency in both languages is codependent. Transfer of linguistic understanding
between languages will occur given the student has sufficient exposure to L1 outside the
classroom [Cummings 1998]. This means if parents or the community adequately expose
children to the L1 they will not have a problem transferring understanding into their first
language.
Interpersonal communication skills are important in and outside of the classroom, so their
development would surely be a concern for parents. According to David Downs-Reid, Director
of Immersion Education in Robbinsdale, Minnesota, “There is no lag with the ‘interpersonal

6. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 5
communication’ skills of speaking and comprehension. In fact immersion students were found to
perform better than their non-immersion peers in these skills [1].” These advanced
communication skills of immersion students is likely because of a better cultural awareness
[Downs-Reid, 1], as well as the need and ability from a young age to explain thoughts and
learning approaches [Chamot & El-Dinary, 324]. According to Jim Cummings, “studies have
reported that bilingual children exhibit greater sensibility to linguistic meaning and may be more
flexible in their thinking than are monolingual children [1998].” This ability for students to better
analyze the linguistic meaning behind a conversation would help in understanding and
communicating with others. Overall studies show no lack of socialization in immersion students.
Because of more emphasis on standardized tests in the United States, achievement level
has become a main focus for parents and educators alike. Research done by Swain and Lapkin
shows that immersion students’ achievement levels are consistent with those of non-immersion
students in math, science, and social studies, as well as English [Downs-Reid, 2]. In fact, in a
study of four immersion schools compared to nine regular schools in Minnesota’s performance
on the Fifth Grade Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments (MCAs) findings were that the
French immersion school ranked first out of ten schools in reading, writing, and math. Also, the
language immersion school, and the two language immersion schools scored in top positions
over schools of comparative socio-economic status as well as over the entire district in reading,
writing, and math [Downs-Reid, 3]. According to another study, immersion students’ IQ scores
improve yearly more than English-program students [Downs-Reid, 2]. As seen in multiple
studies, the achievement levels and abilities of immersion program students is not significantly
impaired by learning in a target language.

7. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 6
The overwhelming achievements of immersion schools may be able to be credited to a
number of different factors including pedagogy. In immersion schools administrators and
teachers take time to assess daily individual students’ strengths and weaknesses to better gear the
class to the needs of the students [Downs-Reid, 3]. Educators try to assess the best learning
strategies for a given student and classroom. Ana Uhl Chamot of the George Washington
University and Pamela Beard El-Dinary researched the learning strategies used by students first
through sixth grades in immersion classrooms in Washington, D.C., for three years (French,
Spanish, and Japanese programs) [Chamot & El-Dinary, 320]. The researchers had the teachers
rate students as high, average, or low performers, then used these classifications to study how
low and high performers used learning strategies [Chamot & El-Dinary, 321]. The study showed
that many students used comparison between languages or background knowledge to understand
readings and instructions; the students heavily relied on cognitive strategies [Chamot & El-
Dinary, 324 & 326]. Jim Cummings suggests to immersion teachers to use comparisons between
songs, puns, jokes, political speeches, and such other discourses that would likely aid immersion
students in cognitive operations [Cummings 1998]. The pedagogy in immersion classrooms is
particularly important because of the need of students to understand how and when to use
learning strategies. According to the study above, “Effective learners are more flexible with their
repertoire of [learning] strategies and more effective at monitoring and adapting their strategies
than their less effective counterparts [Chamot & El-Dinary, 327].” Given the achievement levels
of students in immersion schools (cited above and in previous paragraphs), teachers in
immersion schools spend more time teaching and analyzing learning strategies than do teachers
in normal education systems most likely because of the need given instruction in a second
language.

8. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 7
Given the effectiveness of immersion schools, why are these programs so limited and
often misunderstood? Currently in the U.S. there is a greater push towards national assessments
and achievement in math, science, reading, and writing skills. Second language instruction is no
longer seen as a top priority in the majority of school districts. Many school districts with
immersion programs are at risk of losing them because of budget concerns. Immersion schools
are not necessarily more expensive than regular schools, but they are an extra cost to the district
because it is another school for which the district has to pay. Paying for another building,
administrators, teachers, and supplies is an extra expense for a school district that many are not
willing to support. Administrators and teachers of these programs must spend large quantities of
time not only organizing curriculum but defending, justifying, and explaining these programs
[Downs-Reid, 1]. Because of a lack of public knowledge of immersion programs, they are being
defunded and are becoming scarce in the U.S.
After examining the research given above, there appear to be several benefits (or at least
uses) for immersion programs. Developing culturally aware students is only an added bonus to
the multiple advantages of immersion schools. In a variety of countries immersion programs are
used to teach languages of power, to unite communities around a common language, and to
expand students’ cultural and linguistic understanding. There are many different types of
language immersion programs, and most of these programs have only become popular in the past
fifty years. While these types of language programs may disappear from the U.S. education
system in the near future, language immersion schools will most likely remain a prominent
option for students of other countries and should remain a thought in the mind of educators
around the world as they seek to promote globally aware citizens.

9. Language Immersion: Developing Culturally Aware Students 8
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