Modern_2.pptx for java

Lecture 1
Introduction to
Java

What is a Computer
Program?
 For a computer to be able to do anything
(multiply, play a song, run a word processor),
it must be given the instructions to do so.
 A program is a set of instructions written by
humans for computers to perform tasks.
 The instructions are written in programming
languages such as C, C++, Java, etc.

Recipe Analogy
Comparing a computer program to a food recipe
Food Recipe
 a chef writes a set of
instructions called a recipe
 the recipe requires
specific ingredients
 the cook follows the
instruction step-by-step
 the food will vary
depending on the amount
of ingredients and the cook
Computer Program
 a programmer writes a set
of instructions called a
program
 the program requires
specific inputs
 the computer follows the
instructions step-by-step
 the output will vary
depending on the values of
the inputs and the computer

Compiling Programs
 Computers do not understand the languages
(C++, Java, etc) that programs are written in.
 Programs must first be compiled (converted)
into machine code that the computer can run.
 A compiler is a program that translates a
programming language into machine code.

Running Programs
 All programs follow a simple format:
Input Execution Output
 Inputs can be from users, files, or
other computer programs
 Outputs can take on many forms:
numbers, text, graphics, sound, or
commands to other programs

Multiple Compilers
 Because different operating systems (Windows, Macs,
Unix) require different machine code, you must compile
most programming languages separately for each platform.
program
compiler
compiler
compiler
Win
MAC
Unix

 Java is a little different.
 Java compiler produces bytecode not
machine code.
 Bytecode can be run on any computer
with the Java interpreter installed.
Java Program
compiler
Java Bytecode
Win
MAC
Unix
Interpreter
Java Interpreter

Advantages and Disadvantages
of Java
Advantages:
 Java is platform independent. Once it's compiled, you can run
the bytecode on any machine with a Java interpreter. You do not
have to recompile for each platform.
 Java is safe. Certain common programming bugs and dangerous
operations are prevented by the language and compiler.
 Java standardizes many useful operations like managing
network connections and providing graphical user interfaces.
Disadvantages:
 Running bytecode through the interpreter is not as fast as
running machine code, which is specific to that platform.
 Because it is platform independent, it is difficult to use platform
specific features (e.g., Windows taskbar, quick launch) in Java.
 Java interpreter must be installed on the computer in order to run
Java programs.

Your First Java Program
 Open your text-editor and type the following piece
of Java code exactly:
class HelloWorld {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello World!");
}
}
 Save this file as HelloWorld.java (watch
capitalization) in the following directory:
c:java

Compiling and Running
Your First Program
 Open the command prompt in Windows
 To run the program that you just wrote, type at the command
prompt:
cd c:java
 Your command prompt should now look like this:
c:java>
 To compile the program that you wrote, you need to run the Java
Development Tool Kit Compiler as follows:
At the command prompt type:
c:java> javac HelloWorld.java
 You have now created your first compiled Java program named
HelloWorld.class
 To run your first program, type the following at the command
prompt:
c:java>java HelloWorld
Although the file name includes the .class extension , this part of the name must be
left off when running the program with the Java interpreter.

You’ve created your
first
Java program!

Object-Oriented
Programming
 Java is an object-oriented
programming language
 For the rest of this lecture, we’ll
introduce you to the basic principles
of object-oriented programming.
 We won’t be using these principles
immediately, but they will become
important over the next few weeks.

OOP Concepts
 In object-oriented programming (OOP),
programs are organized into objects
 The properties of objects are
determined by their class
 Objects act on each other by passing
messages

Object
 Definition: An object is a software
bundle that has State and Behavior.
 Software Objects are often used to
model real-world objects.
 Example: dogs have states (name,
color, hungry, breed) and behaviors
(bark, fetch, and wag tail).

Object Examples
 Example 1: Dogs
 States: name, color, breed, and “is
hungry?”
 Behaviors: bark, run, and wag tail
 Example 2: Cars
 States: color, model, speed, direction
 Behaviors: accelerate, turn, change gears

Class
 Definition: A class is a blueprint that defines the
states and the behaviors common to all objects of
a certain kind.
 In the real world, you often have many objects of
the same kind. For example, a guard dog, herding
dog, snoop dog . . .
 Even though all dogs have four legs, and bark,
each dog’s behavior is independent of other dogs.
 For example: Dog #1 is a black Poodle, Dog #2 is
a red Irish Setter

Message
 Definition: Software objects interact and
communicate with each other by sending
messages to each other.
 Example: when you want your dog to
gather a herd of goats, you whistle and
send him out.

Summary of OOP
 When writing an object-oriented program, we
define classes, which describe categories of
objects, and the states and behaviors that they
have in common.
 We then create objects which belong to classes,
and share the common features of their class.
 Objects interact with each other by passing
messages.
 You will be creating your own classes and
objects soon!

Lecture 2
Variables and Primitive
Data Types

What is a Variable?
 Variables are places where information
can be stored while a program is
running.
 Their values can be changed at any
point over the course of a program

Creating Variables
 To create a variable, declare its name and
the type of information that it will store.
 The type is listed first, followed by the name.
 Example: a variable that stores an integer
representing the highest score on an exam
could be declared as follows:
int highScore ;
type name

Creating Variables (continued)
 Now you have the variable (highScore),
you will want to assign a value to it.
 Example: the highest score in the class
exam is 98.
highScore = 98;
 Examples of other types of variables:
String studentName;
boolean gameOver;

Naming Variables
 The name that you choose for a variable is
called an identifier. In Java, an identifier can
be of any length, but must start with:
a letter (a – z),
a dollar sign ($),
or, an underscore ( _ ).
 The rest of the identifier can include any
character except those used as operators in
Java such as + , - , * .
 In addition, there are certain keywords reserved
(e.g., "class") in the Java language which can
never be used as identifiers.

 Java is a case-sensitive language – the
capitalization of letters in identifiers matters.
A rose is not a Rose is not a ROSE
 It is good practice to select variable names that
give a good indication of the sort of data they
hold
 For example, if you want to record the size of a hat,
hatSize is a good choice for a name whereas qqq
would be a bad choice
Naming (Continued)

 When naming a variable, the following
convention is commonly used:
 The first letter of a variable name is lowercase
 Each successive word in the variable name begins
with a capital letter
 All other letters are lowercase
 Here are some examples:
pageCount
loadFile
anyString
threeWordVariable

POP QUIZ
 Which of the following are valid variable
names?
1)$amount
2)6tally
3)my*Name
4)salary
5)_score
6)first Name
7)total#

Statements
 A statement is a command that causes
something to happen.
 All statements in Java are separated by
semicolons ;
 Example:
System.out.println(“Hello, World”);
 You have already used statements to
create a variable and assign it a value.

Variables and Statements
 One way is to declare a variable and then
assign a value to it with two statements:
int e; // declaring a variable
e = 5; // assigning a value to a variable
 Another way is to write a single
initialization statement:
int e = 5; // declaring AND assigning

Java is a Strongly-Typed
Language
 All variables must be declared with a data
type before they are used.
 Each variable's declared type does not
change over the course of the program.
 Certain operations are only allowed with
certain data types.
 If you try to perform an operation on an
illegal data type (like multiplying Strings),
the compiler will report an error.

Primitive Data Types
 There are eight built-in (primitive) data
types in the Java language
 4 integer types (byte, short, int, long)
 2 floating point types (float, double)
 Boolean (boolean)
 Character (char)
**see Appendix II: Summary of Primitive Data Types for a
complete table of sizes and formats**

Integer Data Types
 There are four data types that can be used
to store integers.
 The one you choose to use depends on the
size of the number that we want to store.
 In this course, we will always use int when
dealing with integers.
Data Type Value Range
byte -128 to +127
short -32768 to +32767
int -2147483648 to +2147483647
long -9223372036854775808 to
+9223372036854775807

 Here are some examples of when you would
want to use integer types:
- byte smallValue;
smallValue = -55;
- int pageCount = 1250;
- long bigValue = 1823337144562L;
Note: By adding an L to the end of the value in the last
example, the program is “forced” to consider the value
to be of a type long even if it was small enough to be
an int

Floating Point Data Types
 There are two data types that can be used
to store decimal values (real numbers).
 The one you choose to use depends on the
size of the number that we want to store.
 In this course, we will always use double
when dealing with decimal values.
Data Type Value Range
float 1.4×10-45 to 3.4×1038
double 4.9×10-324 to 1.7×10308

 Here are some examples of when you
would want to use floating point types:
 double g = 7.7e100 ;
 double tinyNumber = 5.82e-203;
 float costOfBook = 49.99F;
 Note: In the last example we added an F
to the end of the value. Without the F, it
would have automatically been considered
a double instead.

Boolean Data Type
 Boolean is a data type that can be
used in situations where there are
two options, either true or
false.
 Example:
boolean monsterHungry = true;
boolean fileOpen = false;

Character Data Types
 Character is a data type that can be used to
store a single characters such as a letter,
number, punctuation mark, or other symbol.
 Example:
 char firstLetterOfName = 'e' ;
 char myQuestion = '?' ;
 Note that you need to use singular quotation
marks when assigning char data types.

Introduction to Strings
 Strings consist of a series of characters inside
double quotation marks.
 Examples statements assign String variables:
String coAuthor = "John Smith";
String password = "swordfish786";
 Strings are not one of the primitive data types,
although they are very commonly used.
 Strings are constant; their values cannot be
changed after they are created.

POP QUIZ
What data types would you use to store
the following types of information?:
1)Population of Ethiopia
2)Approximation of π
3)Open/closed status of a file
4)Your name
5)First letter of your name
6)$237.66
int
double
boolean
String
char
double

Appendix I: Reserved Words
The following keywords are reserved in the Java
language. They can never be used as identifiers:
abstract assert boolean break byte
case catch char class const
continue default do double else
extends final finally float for
goto if implements import instanceo
f
int interfac
e
long native new
package private protected public return
short static strictfp super switch
synchronize
d
this throw throws transient
try void violate while

Appendix II: Primitive Data Types
The following tables show all of the primitive
data types along with their sizes and formats:
Data Type Description
byte Variables of this kind can have a value from:
-128 to +127 and occupy 8 bits in memory
short Variables of this kind can have a value from:
int Variables of this kind can have a value from:
long Variables of this kind can have a value from:
-9223372036854775808 to +9223372036854775807 and occupy
64 bits in memory
Integers

Appendix II: Primitive Data Types
(cont)
Data Type Description
float Variables of this kind can have a value from:
1.4e(-45) to 3.4e(+38)
double Variables of this kind can have a value from:
4.9e(-324) to 1.7e(+308)
Real Numbers
char Variables of this kind can have a value from:
A single character
boolean Variables of this kind can have a value from:
True or False
Other Primitive Data Types

What are Operators?
• Operators are special symbols used for
– mathematical functions
– assignment statements
– logical comparisons
• Examples:
3 + 5 // uses + operator
14 + 5 – 4 * (5 – 3) // uses +, -, * operators
• Expressions can be combinations of variables, primitives
and operators that result in a value

 There are 5 different groups of operators:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operator
 Increment/Decrement operators
 Relational operators
 Conditional operators
The Operator Groups

Arithmetic Operators
 Java has 6 basic arithmetic operators
+ add
- subtract
* multiply
/ divide
% modulo (remainder)
^ exponent (to the power of)
 Order of operations (or precedence) when
evaluating an expression is the same as you
learned in school (PEMDAS).

Order of Operations
 Example: 10 + 15 / 5;
 The result is different depending on whether the
addition or division is performed first
(10 + 15) / 5 = 5
10 + (15 / 5) = 13
Without parentheses, Java will choose the
second case
 Note: you should be explicit and use
parentheses to avoid confusion

Integer Division
 In the previous example, we were
lucky that (10 + 15) / 5 gives an
exact integer answer (5).
 But what if we divide 63 by 35?
 Depending on the data types of the
variables that store the numbers,
we will get different results.

Integer Division Example
 int i = 63;
int j = 35;
System.out.println(i / j);
Output: 1
 double x = 63;
double y = 35;
System.out.println(x / y);
Ouput: 1.8
 The result of integer division is just
the integer part of the quotient!

Assignment Operator
 The basic assignment operator (=)
assigns the value of var to expr
var = expr ;
 Java allows you to combine arithmetic
and assignment operators into a single
operator.
 Examples:
x = x + 5; is equivalent to x +=
5;
y = y * 7; is equivalent to y *=
7;

Increment/Decrement Operators
count = count + 1;
can be written as:
++count; or count++;
++ is called the increment operator.
count = count - 1;
can be written as:
--count; or count--;
-- is called the decrement operator.

The increment/decrement operator has two forms:
 The prefix form ++count, --count
first adds 1 to the variable and then continues to any other
operator in the expression
int numOranges = 5;
int numApples = 10;
int numFruit;
numFruit = ++numOranges + numApples;
numFruit has value 16
numOranges has value 6
 The postfix form count++, count--
first evaluates the expression and then adds 1 to the variable
int numOranges = 5;
int numApples = 10;
int numFruit;
numFruit = numOranges++ + numApples;
numFruit has value 15
numOranges has value 6

Relational (Comparison)
Operators
operation is true when . . .
a > b a is greater than b
a >= b a is greater than or equal to b
a == b a is equal to b
a != b a is not equal to b
a <= b a is less than or equal to b
a < b a is less than b
• Relational operators compare two values
• Produces a boolean value (true or false)
depending on the relationship

int x = 3;
int y = 5;
boolean result;
1) result = (x > y);
now result is assigned the value false because
3 is not greater than 5
2) result = (15 == x*y);
now result is assigned the value true because the product of
3 and 5 equals 15
3) result = (x != x*y);
now result is assigned the value true because the product of
x and y (15) is not equal to x (3)
Examples of Relational Operations

Conditional Operators
Symbol Name
&& AND
|| OR
! NOT
 Conditional operators can be referred to as boolean
operators, because they are only used to combine
expressions that have a value of true or false.

Truth Table for Conditional
Operators
x y x && y x || y !x
True True True True False
True False False True False
False True False True True
False False False False True

boolean x = true;
boolean y = false;
boolean result;
1. Let result = (x && y);
now result is assigned the value false
(see truth table!)
2. Let result = ((x || y) && x);
(x || y) evaluates to true
(true && x) evaluates to true
now result is assigned the value true
Examples of Conditional Operators

 Examples:
(a && (b++ > 3))
(x || y)
 Java will evaluate these expressions from
left to right and so will evaluate
a before (b++ > 3)
x before y
 Java performs short-circuit evaluation:
it evaluates && and || expressions from left
to right and once it finds the result, it stops.
Using && and ||

Short-Circuit Evaluations
(a && (b++ > 3))
What happens if a is false?
 Java will not evaluate the right-hand expression (b++
> 3) if the left-hand operator a is false, since the
result is already determined in this case to be false.
This means b will not be incremented!
(x || y)
What happens if x is true?
 Similarly, Java will not evaluate the right-hand operator
y if the left-hand operator x is true, since the result is
already determined in this case to be true.

POP QUIZ
1) What is the value of number?
int number = 5 * 3 – 3 / 6 – 9 * 3;
2) What is the value of result?
int x = 8;
int y = 2;
boolean result = (15 == x * y);
3) What is the value of result?
boolean x = 7;
boolean result = (x < 8) && (x > 4);
4) What is the value of numCars?
int numBlueCars = 5;
int numGreenCars = 10;
int numCars = numGreenCars++ + numBlueCars + ++numGreeenCars;
-12
false
true
27

References
 Summary of Java operators
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/opsummary.html
 Order of Operations (PEMDAS)
1. Parentheses
2. Exponents
3. Multiplication and Division from left to right
4. Addition and Subtraction from left to right

Program Flow
 Java will execute the
statements in your code in a
specific sequence, or "flow".
 The "flow" of the program
and can be described
through a "flow diagram":
a more sophisticated program
a simple program
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement
statement statement
statement
statement

What are Control
Structures?
 Control structures alter the flow of the
program, the sequence of statements that
are executed in a program.
 They act as "direction signals" to control
the path a program takes.
 Two types of control structures in Java:
 decision statements
 loops

Decision Statements
 A decision statement allows the
code to execute a statement or
block of statements conditionally.
 Two types of decisions statements
in Java:
 if statements
 switch statements

If Statement
if (expression) {
statement;
}
rest_of_program;
 expression must evaluate to a boolean value, either
true or false
 If expression is true, statement is executed and
then rest_of_program
 If expression is false, statement is not executed
and the program continues at rest_of_program

If Statement Flow
Diagram
The if decision statement executes
a statement if an expression is true
execute
statement
execute
rest_of_program
Is expression
true?
yes
no
if (expression) {
statement1;
}
rest_of_program

If-Else Statement
if (expression) {
statement1;
}
else{
statement2;
}
next_statement;
 Again, expression must produce a boolean value
 If expression is true, statement1 is executed and
then next_statement is executed.
 If expression is false, statement2 is executed and
then next_statement is executed.

If-Else Flow Diagram
if (expression){
statement1;
} else {
statement2;
}
rest_of_program
The if-else decision
statement executes a
statement if an expression
is true and a different
statement if it is not true.
is
“expression”
true?
execute
statement1
execute
rest_of_program
no
yes
execute
statement2

Chained If-Else
Statements
if (grade == 'A')
System.out.println("You got an A.");
else if (grade == 'B')
System.out.println("You got a B.");
else if (grade == 'C')
System.out.println("You got a C.");
else
System.out.println("You got an F.");

Switch Statements
 The switch statement enables you to test several cases
generated by a given expression.
 For example:
switch (expression) {
case value1:
statement1;
case value2:
statement2;
default:
default_statement;
}
Every statement after the true case is executed
 The expression must evaluate to a char, byte, short
or int, but not long, float, or double.

y
y
n
n
switch (expression){
case value1:
// Do value1 thing
case value2:
// Do value2 thing
...
default:
// Do default action
}
// Continue the program
expression
equals
value1?
Do value1 thing
Do value2 thing
Do default action
expression
equals
value2?
Continue the
program

Break Statements in Switch
Statements
 The break statement tells the computer to exit
the switch statement
 For example:
switch (expression) {
case value1:
statement1;
break;
case value2:
statement2;
break;
default:
default_statement;
break;
}

switch (expression){
case value1:
// Do value1 thing
break;
case value2:
// Do value2 thing
break;
...
default:
// Do default action
break;
}
// Continue the program
expression
equals
value1?
expression
equals
value2?
do default action
Do value1 thing
Do value2 thing
break
break
break
Continue the
program
y
y
n
n

Remember the Chained If-Else .
. .
if (grade == 'A')
else if (grade == 'B')
else if (grade == 'C')
else

 This is how it is accomplished with a switch:
 if-else chains can be sometimes be rewritten
as a “switch” statement.
 switches are usually simpler and faster
switch (grade) {
case 'A':
break;
case 'B':
break;
case 'C':
break;
default:
}

Loops
 A loop allows you to execute a statement or
block of statements repeatedly.
 Three types of loops in Java:
1. while loops
2. for loops
3. do-while loops (not discussed in this course)

The while Loop
while (expression){
statement
}
 This while loop executes as long as the given logical
expression between parentheses is true. When
expression is false, execution continues with the
statement following the loop block.
 The expression is tested at the beginning of the loop, so
if it is initially false, the loop will not be executed at all.

 For example:
int sum = 0;
int i = 1;
while (i <= 10){
sum += i;
i++;
}
 What is the value of sum?
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 55

The for Loop
The control of the for loop appear in parentheses and is made up of
three parts:
1. The first part, the init_expression,sets the initial
conditions for the loop and is executed before the loop starts.
2. Loop executes so long as the loop_condition is true and
exits otherwise.
3. The third part of the control information, the
increment_expr, is usually used to increment the loop
counter. This is executed at the end of each loop iteration.
for (init_expr; loop_condition; increment_expr) {
statement;
}

 For example:
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
sum += i;
}
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 55

 Example 3:
for(int div = 0; div < 1000; div++){
if(div % 2 == 0) {
System.out.println("even: " + div);
} else {
System.out.println("odd: " + div);
}
}
 What will this for loop do?
prints out each integer from 0 to 999,
correctly labeling them even or odd

 If there is more than one variable to set up or
increment they are separated by a comma.
for(i=0, j=0; i*j < 100; i++, j+=2) {
System.out.println(i * j);
}
 You do not have to fill all three control expressions
but you must still have two semicolons.
int n = 0;
for(; n <= 100;) {
System.out.println(++n);
}

The while loop
Test condition
is true?
Execute loop
statement(?)
Next statement
y
n
Initialize count
Test condition
is true?
Execute loop
statement(s)
Increment
count
New statement
The for loop
y
n

The continue Statement
 The continue statement causes the program
to jump to the next iteration of the loop.
/**
* prints out "5689"
*/
for(int m = 5; m < 10; m++) {
if(m == 7) {
continue;
}
System.out.print(m);
}

 Another continue example:
int sum = 0;
for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++){
if(i % 3 == 0) {
continue;
}
sum += i;
}
1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 10 = 37

The break Statement
 We have seen the use of the break
statement in the switch statement.
 You can also use the break statement to exit
the loop entirely.
// prints out numbers unless
// num is ever exactly 400
while (num > 6) {
if(num == 400) {
break;
}
System.out.println(num);
num -= 8;
}

Nested Loops
 You can nest loops of any kind one inside
another to any depth. What does this print?
for(int i = 10; i > 0; i--) {
if (i > 7) {
continue;
}
while (i > 3) {
if(i == 5) {
break;
}
System.out.println(--i);
}
System.out.println(i);
}
6
5
5
4
3
2
1

POP QUIZ
1. In the switch statement, which types can
expression evaluate to?
2. What must be used to separate each
section of a for statement.
3. Which statement causes a program to
skip to the next iteration of a loop.
4. Write a for loop that outputs 100-1 in
reverse sequence.
5. Write a for loop that outputs all numbers
that are divisible by 3 between 0-50.
char, byte, short, int
semicolons
continue

Lecture 5
Arrays
A way to organize data

What are Arrays?
 An array is a series of compartments to store
data.
 Each compartment is appropriately sized for
the particular data type the array is declared
to store.
 An array can hold only one type of data!
E.g. int[] can hold only integers
char[] can hold only characters

Array Visualization
primes[0]
int[] primes = new int[10];
Specifies an array of
variables of type int
// An array of 10 integers
index values
We are creating
a new array object
The name of
the array
The array object is of
type int
and has ten elements
primes[1] primes[2] primes[3] primes[4] primes[9]

Declaring an Array Variable
 Array declarations use square brackets.
datatype[] label;
 For example:
int[] prices;
String[] names;

Creating a New "Empty"
Array
Use this syntax: new int[20]
 The new keyword creates an array of type
int that has 20 compartments
 The new array can then be assigned to an
array variable:
int[] prices = new int[20];
 When first created as above, the items in the
array are initialized to the zero value of the
datatype
int: 0 double: 0.0 String: null

Array Indexes
 Every compartment in an array is assigned an
integer reference.
 This number is called the index of the
compartment
 Important: In Java (and most other languages),
the index starts from 0 and ends at n-1, where n
is the size of the array

Accessing Array Elements
 To access an item in an array, type
the name of the array followed by
the item’s index in square brackets.
 For example, the expression:
names[0]
will return the first element in the
names array

Filling an Array
 Assign values to compartments:
prices[0] = 6.75;
prices[1] = 80.43;
prices[2] = 10.02;

Constructing Arrays
 To construct an array, you can declare a
new empty array and then assign values
to each of the compartments:
String[] names = new String[5];
names[0] = "David";
names[1] = "Qian";
names[2] = "Emina";
names[3] = "Jamal";
names[4] = "Ashenafi";

Another Way to Construct
Arrays
 You can also specify all of the items in an
array at its creation.
 Use curly brackets to surround the array’s
data and separate the values with commas:
String[] names = { "David", "Qian",
"Emina", "Jamal", "Ashenafi"};
 Note that all the items must be of the same
type. Here they are of type String.
 Another example:
int[] powers = {0, 1, 10, 100};

Length of array
String[] names = {
"David", "Qian", "Emina",
"Jamal", "Ashenafi" };
int numberOfNames = names.length;
System.out.println(numberOfNames);
Output: 5
 Important: Arrays are always of the
same size: their lengths cannot be
changed once they are created!

Example
String[] names = {
"Aisha", "Tamara", "Gikandi", "Ato", "Lauri"};
for(int i = 0; i < names.length; i++){
System.out.println("Hello " + names[i] + ".");
}
Output:
Hello Aisha.
Hello Tamara.
Hello Gikandi.
Hello Ato.
Hello Lauri.

Modifying Array Elements
 Example:
names[0] = “Bekele"
 Now the first name in names[] has been
changed from "Aisha" to "Bekele".
 So the expression names[0] now evaluates to
"Bekele".
 Note: The values of compartments can change,
but no new compartments may be added.

Example
int[] fibs = new int[10];
fibs[0] = 1;
fibs[1] = 1;
for(int i = 2; i < fibs.length; i++) {
fibs[i] = fibs[i-2] + fibs[i-1];
}
 After running this code, the array fibs[]
contains the first ten Fibonacci numbers:
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
Note: array indexes can be expressions

Exercise 1
 Which of the following sequences of
statements does not create a new array?
a. int[] arr = new int[4];
b. int[] arr;
arr = new int[4];
c. int[] arr = { 1, 2, 3, 4};
d. int[] arr; just declares an array variable

Exercise 2
 Given this code fragment,
int[] data = new int[10];
System.out.println(data[j]);
 Which of the following is a legal value of j?
a. -1
b. 0
c. 3.5
d. 10
// out of range
// legal value
// out of range
// out of range

Exercise 3
 Which set of data would not be
suitable for storing in an array?
a. the score for each of the four
quarters of a Football match
b. your name, date of birth, and score
on your physics test
c. temperature readings taken every
hour throughout a day
d. your expenses each month for an
entire year
// these are different types

Exercise 4
 What is the value of c after the following
code segment?
int [] a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int [] b = {11, 12, 13};
int [] c = new int[4];
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
c[j] = a[j] + b[j];
}
c = [12, 14, 16, 0]

2-Dimensional Arrays
 The arrays we've used so far can be
thought of as a single row of values.
 A 2-dimensional array can be thought
of as a grid (or matrix) of values
 Each element of the 2-D array is
accessed by providing two indexes:
a row index and a column index
 (A 2-D array is actually just an array of arrays)
0 1
0 8 4
1 9 7
2 3 6
value at row index 2,
column index 0 is 3

2-D Array Example
 Example:
A landscape grid of a 20 x 55 acre piece of land:
We want to store the height of the land at each
row and each column of the grid.
 We declare a 2D array two sets of square brackets:
double[][] heights = new double[20][55];
 This 2D array has 20 rows and 55 columns
 To access the acre at row index 11 and column index
23 user: heights[11][23]

MIT-AITI 2003
Lecture 6
Methods
Methods

 Methods also known as functions or procedures.
 Methods are a way of capturing a sequence of
computational steps into a reusable unit.
 Methods can accept inputs in the form of
arguments, perform some operations with the
arguments, and then can return a value the is the
output, or result of their computations.
The Concept of a Method
method
inputs outputs

 Square root is a good example of a method.
 The square root method accepts a single number as an
argument and returns the square root of that number.
 The computation of square roots involves many
intermediate steps between input and output.
 When we use square root, we don’t care about these
steps. All we need is to get the correct output.
 Hiding the internal workings of a method from a user but
providing the correct answer is known as abstraction
Square Root Method

 A method has 4 parts: the return type, the
name, the arguments, and the body:
double sqrt(double num) {
// a set of operations that compute
// the square root of a number
}
 The type, name and arguments together is
referred to as the signature of the method
Declaring Methods
type name arguments
body

The Return Type of a
Method
 The return type of a method may be
any data type.
 The type of a method designates the
data type of the output it produces.
 Methods can also return nothing in
which case they are declared void.

Return
Statements
 The return statement is used in a method to output
the result of the methods computation.
 It has the form: return expression_value;
 The type of the expression_value must be the
same as the type of the method:
double sqrt(double num){
double answer;
// Compute the square root of num and store
// the value into the variable answer
return answer;
}

Return Statements
 A method exits immediately after it
executes the return statement
 Therefore, the return statement is
usually the last statement in a method
 A method may have multiple return
statements. Can you think of an
example of such a case?

Brain Teaser Answer
 Example:
int absoluteValue (int num){
if (num < 0)
return –num;
else
return num;
}

void Methods
 A method of type void has a return statement
without any specified value. i.e. return;
 This may seem useless, but in practice void is
used often.
 A good example is when a methods only
purpose is to print to the screen.
 If no return statement is used in a method of type
void, it automatically returns at the end

Method Arguments
 Methods can take input in the form of
arguments.
 Arguments are used as variables inside the
method body.
 Like variables, arguments, must have their
type specified.
 Arguments are specified inside the paren-
theses that follow the name of the method.

 Here is an example of a method that
divides two doubles:
double divide(double a, double b) {
double answer;
answer = a / b;
return answer;
}
Example
Method

Method Arguments
 Multiple method arguments are
separated by commas:
double pow(double x, double y)
 Arguments may be of different types
int indexOf(String str, int fromIndex)

The Method Body
 The body of a method is a block
specified by curly brackets. The body
defines the actions of the method.
 The method arguments can be used
anywhere inside of the body.
 All methods must have curly brackets
to specify the body even if the body
contains only one or no statement.

Invoking Methods
 To call a method, specify the name of
the method followed by a list of comma
separated arguments in parentheses:
pow(2, 10); //Computes 210
 If the method has no arguments, you
still need to follow the method name
with empty parentheses:
size();

Static Methods
 Some methods have the keyword
static before the return type:
static double divide(double a, double b) {
return a / b;
}
 We'll learn what it means for a method to
be static in a later lecture
 For now, all the methods we write in lab
will be static.

main - A Special
Method
 The only method that we have used in lab up
until this point is the main method.
 The main method is where a Java program
always starts when you run a class file with
the java command
 The main method is static has a strict
signature which must be followed:
. . .
}

main
continued
class SayHi {
System.out.println("Hi, " + args[0]);
}
}
 When java Program arg1 arg2 … argN is typed on
the command line, anything after the name of the class file
is automatically entered into the args array:
java SayHi Sonia
 In this example args[0] will contain the String "Sonia",
and the output of the program will be "Hi, Sonia".

class Greetings {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String greeting = "";
for (int i=0; i < args.length; i++) {
greeting += "Jambo " + args[i] + "! ";
}
System.out.println(greeting);
}
}
 After compiling, if you type
java Greetings Alice Bob Charlie
prints out "Jambo Alice! Jambo Bob! Jambo Charlie!"
Example main method

class Factorial {
public static void main (String[] args) {
int num = Integer.parseInt(args[0]));
System.out.println(fact(num));
}
static int fact(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
else return n * fact(n – 1);
}
}
 After compiling, if you type java Factorial 4
the program will print out 24
Recursive Example

class Max {
if (args.length == 0) return;
int max = Integer.parseInt(args[0]);
for (int i=1; i < args.length; i++) {
if (Integer.parseInt(args[i]) > max) {
max = Integer.parseInt(args[i]);
}
}
System.out.println(max);
}
}
 After compiling, if you type java Max 3 2 9 2 4
the program will print out 9
Another Example

Summary
 Methods capture a piece of computation we wish to
perform repeatedly into a single abstraction
 Methods in Java have 4 parts: return type, name,
arguments, body.
 The return type and arguments may be either
primitive data types or complex data types (Objects)
 main is a special Java method which the java
interpreter looks for when you try to run a class file
 main has a strict signature that must be followed:
public static void main(String args[])

Lecture 7
Classes and Objects - Part I

What is an Object?
 An Object has two primary components:
 state – properties of the object
 behavior – operations the object can perform
 Examples
object state behavior
dog breed, isHungry eat, bark
grade book grades mean, median
light on/off switch

Objects in Java
 A class defines a new type of Object
 To create a Object type to represent a
light switch . . .
class LightSwitch {
// state and behavior here
}

Fields
 An Object's state is stored in variables
called fields
 Fields are declared (and optionally
initialized) inside the braces of the class
 Light switch example with a field . . .
class LightSwitch {
boolean on = true;
}

Methods
 An Object's behavior is defined by its
methods
 Methods, like fields, are written inside the
braces of the class
 Methods can access the fields (the state)
of their object and can change them

Light Switch Example
class LightSwitch {
boolean on = true; // field
boolean isOn() { // returns
return on; // the state
}
void switch() { // changes
on = !on; // the state
}
}

Constructing Objects
 We use the new keyword to construct a
new instance of an Object
 We can assign this instance to a variable
with the same type of the Object
 Note: classes define new datatypes !
LightSwitch ls = new LightSwitch();

ls.on;
ls.isOn();
ls.switch();
Using Fields and Methods
 To access the field of an instance of an
Object use instance.field
 To access the method of an instance use
instance.method(arguments)

Example Using Light
Switch
 What does this main method print out?
System.out.println(ls.on);
ls.switch();
System.out.println(ls.isOn());
true
false

Person Example
class Person {
String name = “Jamal”;
int age = 26;
String getName() { return name; }
void setName(String n) { name = n; }
int getAge() { return age; }
void setAge(int a) { age = a; }
boolean smellsBad(){return true;}
}

Constructing Person
Objects
 To create an instance of the Person class
with a name of "George" and an age of 22
 Can we create a Person that has the name
George and the age 22 from the moment it
is created?
 Answer: Yes!
Person george = new Person();
george.setName("George");
george.setAge(22);

Constructors
 Constructors are special methods used to
construct an instance of a class
 They have no return type
 They have the same name as the class of the
Object they are constructing
 They initialize the state of the Object
 Call the constructor by preceding it with the
new keyword

Person Constructor
 Now we can construct George as follows:
class Person {
String name;
int age;
Person(String n, int a) {
name = n;
age = a;
}
// . . .
}
Person george = new Person("George", 22);

Default Constructor
 When you do not write a constructor in a
class, it implicitly has a constructor with no
arguments and an empty body
 Result: every class has a constructor
class LightSwitch {
// Leaving out the constructor
// is the same as . . .
LightSwitch() {}
}

Multiple Constructors
 A class can have multiple constructors
class LightSwitch {
boolean on;
LightSwitch() {
on = true;
}
LightSwitch(boolean o) {
on = o;
}
}

This Keyword
 Instance can refer to itself with the
keyword this
class LightSwitch {
boolean on;
LightSwitch() {
this.on = true; //(same as
on=true;)
}
LightSwitch(boolean on) {
this.on = on;
}

Cascading Constructors
 A constructor can call another constructor with
this(arguments)
class LightSwitch {
boolean on;
LightSwitch() {
this(true);
}
LightSwitch(boolean on) {
this.on = on;
}
}

Classes Recap
 Classes have fields to store the state of the
objects in the class and methods to provide
the operations the objects can perform.
 We construct instances of a class with the
keyword new followed by a call a constructor
method of the class.
 We can assign an instance to a variable with a
datatype named the same as the class.
 If you do not provide a constructor, the class
will have one with no arguments and no
statements by default.

Apple Example
class Apple {
String color;
double price;
Apple(String color, double price) {
this.color = color;
this.price = price;
}
Apple(double price) {
this("green", price);
}
String getColor() { return color; }
double getPrice() { return price; }
void setPrice(double p) { price = p; }
}

Apple Quiz
 What will these lines print out?
Apple a = new Apple("red", 100.0);
System.out.println(a.getColor());
System.out.println(a.getPrice());
a.setPrice(50.5);
System.out.println(a.getPrice());
Apple b = new Apple(74.6);
System.out.println(b.getColor());
System.out.println(b.getPrice());
b.setPrice(a.getPrice());
System.out.println(b.getPrice());
red
100.0
50.5
green
74.6
50.5

Lecture 8
Classes And Objects II

Recall the LightSwitch
Class
class LightSwitch {
boolean on = true;
boolean isOn() {
return on;
}
void switch() {
on = !on;
}
}

A Different LightSwitch
Class
class LightSwitch {
int on = 1;
boolean isOn() {
return on == 1;
}
void switch() {
on = 1 - on;
}
}

Abstraction
 Both LightSwitch classes behave the same.
 We treat LightSwitch as an abstraction:
we do not care about the internal code of
LightSwitch, only the external behavior
 Internal code = implementation
 External behavior = interface

Why is Abstraction
Important?
 We can continue to refine and improve
the implementation of a class so long as
the interface remains the same.
 All we need is the interface to an Object
in order to use it, we do not need to know
anything about how it performs its
prescribed behavior.

Breaking the Abstraction
Barrier
 A user of LightSwitch that relied on the
boolean field would break if we changed
to an integer field
class AbstractionBreaker {
if (ls.on) // now broken!
System.out.println("light is on");
else
System.out.println("light is off");
}
}

Public versus Private
 Label fields and methods private to ensure
other classes can't access them
 Label fields and methods public to ensure
other classes can access them.
 If they are not labeled public or private, for
now consider them public.

A Better LightSwitch
class LightSwitch {
private boolean on = true;
public boolean isOn() {
return on;
}
public void switch() {
on = !on;
}
}

Enforcing the Abstraction
Barrier
 By labeling the on field private . . .
 Now AbstractionBreaker's attempt to
access the on field would not have
compiled to begin with.
class LightSwitch {
private boolean on = true;
// . . .
}
if (ls.on) // would never have compiled

Equality Quiz 1
 Is (a == b) ?
 Answer: Yes
 Is (g == h) ?
 Answer: No
int a = 7;
int b = 7;
Person g = new Person("Jamal", 26);
Person h = new Person("Jamal", 26);

Primitives vs Objects
 Two datatypes in Java: primitives and objects
 Primitives: byte, short, int, long, double, float,
boolean, char
== tests if two primitives have the same value
 Objects: defined in Java classes
== tests if two objects are the same object

References
 The new keyword always constructs a
new unique instance of a class
 When an instance is assigned to a
variable, that variable is said to hold
a reference or point to that object
 g and h hold references to two different
objects that happen to have identical state

Reference Inequality
 g != h because g and h hold references to
different objects
"Jamal"
26
"Jamal"
26
g h

Reference Equality
 greg1 == greg2 because greg1 and
greg2 hold references to the same object
Person greg1 = new Person("Greg", 23);
Person greg2 = greg1;
"Greg"
23
greg2
greg1

Equality Quiz 2
 true or false?
a) g == h
b) g.getAge() == h.getAge()
c) greg1 == greg2
d) greg1.getAge() == greg2.getAge();
Person greg1 = new Person("Greg", 23);
Person greg2 = greg1;
false
true
true
true

 You can get information on all in-built Java
classes/methods by browsing the Java
Application Programming Interface (API)
 This documentation is essential to building
any substantial Java application
 Available on your CD's
Java API

Arrays Review
 Arrays are a simple data structure
 Arrays store a row of values of the same type
 Primitive types (int, double, etc.)
// array that can hold 10 chars
char[] letters = new char[10];
 Objects (Students, Dates etc.)
// array that can hold 3 LightSwitches
LightSwitch[] switches = new
LightSwitch[3];

Arrays Review
 Access each value through an index:
int[] intArray = new int[20];
intArray[0] = 4 ; intArray[1] = 75;
 Array indices start at 0, not 1
 first element of intArray is intArray[0]
 last element of intArray is
intArray[19]
 Important: Array lengths cannot be
changed once they are declared!

Is there something better?
 As we learned in the Gradebook lab,
because of their fixed length, arrays
can be annoying to use.
 Is there something like an array but
that will handle all the resizing
automatically?
 YES!

ArrayList
 ArrayList stores its elements internally
as an array.
 get method is fast – just retrieves the
element at the specified index
 add method is slow – may have to create a
larger array and copy over all the elements.

Linked List Data Structure
 A linked list is like a freight train: each link
stores an item and is connected to the next
link
 The list holds a reference to the first (and
maybe the last) element
Linked List Link 1 Link 2 Link n
Item 1 Item 2 Item n
. . .

LinkedList
 LinkedList stores its elements
internally in a linked list data structure.
 add method is fast – just appends a new
link to the end of the list
 get method is slow – has to walk down
the list retrieve the element at the
specified index

iterator method
 Both ArrayList and LinkedList
have a method named iterator
 Returns an object of type Iterator
 We use the Iterator to iterate over
the elements of the list.

Iterators
 We use Iterators to iterate over
the elements of lists
 hasNext method returns true when
there are more elements to iterate
over
 next method returns the next
element in the iteration

Casting
 Because the next method returns type
Object, you must cast the return value
to the actual type of the value.
 "Casting" means "promising" the compiler
that the object will be of a particular type
 This allows you to use methods of the
actual type without the compiler
complaining

GradeBook Iteration
class GradeBook {
private ArrayList grades;
void printGrades() {
Iterator gradeIter =
grades.iterator();
while(gradeIter.hasNext()) {
Double g =
(Double)gradeIter.next();
System.out.println(g.doubleValue());
}

for(Iterator studentIter =
students.iterator();
studentIter.hasNext();) {
Student s = studentIter.next();
System.out.println(s.getDescription());
(Student)studentIter.next();
Quiz
 Which list implementation is fast when
accessing arbitrary indices?
 What is wrong with the iteration below?
ArrayList
Casting

public class MyMath {
public double PI = 3.14159;
public double square (double x) {
return x * x;
}
public static void main(String[ ] args) {
MyMath m = new MyMath();
System.out.println("m: value of PI is " + m.PI);
System.out.println("m: square of 5 is " + m.square(5));
MyMath n = new MyMath();
System.out.println("n: value of PI is " + n.PI);
System.out.println("n: square of 5 is " + n.square(5));
}
}
MyMath Example

 In Example 1, to calculate the square of 5
we need to create an instance of MyMath
class:
MyMath m = new MyMath();
 Then we invoke it’s square() method with
the argument 5:
m.square(5);
Objects Review

MyMath Output
 The results of invoking square() method on
instances m and n are the same:
m: value of PI is 3.14159
m: square of 5 is 25
n: value of PI is 3.14159
n: square of 5 is 25
 square() behaves the same no matter which
instance it is called on.
 So . . . why not have one square() method
for the entire class?

Also . . .
 The value of PI = 3.14159 is the
same for all instances of MyMath class.
 Why do we need to store a value of PI
separately for each instance of MyMath?
 Instead, can we have only one common
value of PI for the whole MyMath class?

MyMath with static
// add keyword "static" to field declaration
public static double PI = 3.14159;
// add keyword "static" to method declaration
public static double square (double x) {
return x * x;
}
// main method is always declared "static"
public static void main( String[ ] args) {
// MyMath m = new MyMath(); - No longer need this line!
// MyMath n = new MyMath(); - No longer need this line!
// Now invoke square() method on the MyMath class
System.out.println("Value of PI is " + MyMath.PI);
System.out.println("Square of 5 is" + MyMath.square(5));
}
}

Static Pi Field
 We added word static to the declaration of
the final variable PI:
 It means that now we have only one value of
variable PI for all instances of MyMath class;
PI is now a class data field

The final keyword
 We declared PI as
but this does not prevent changing its value:
MyMath.PI = 999999999;
 Use keyword final to denote a constant :
public static final double PI = 3.14159;
 Once we declare a variable to be final, it's
value can no longer be changed!

Final References
 Consider this final reference to a Point:
public static final Point ORIGIN =
new Point(0,0);
 This prevents changing the reference ORIGIN:
MyMath.ORIGIN = new Point(3, 4);
 BUT! You can still call methods on ORIGIN that
change the state of ORIGIN.
MyMath.ORIGIN.setX(4);

MyMath with static &
final
// add keyword final to field declaration
public static final double PI = 3.14159;
public static double square (double x) {
return x * x;
}
public static void main( String[ ] args) {
System.out.println("Value of PI is " +
MyMath.PI);
System.out.println("Square of 5: " +
MyMath.square(5));
}
}

Static Fields
 Only one instance of a static field data
for the entire class, not one per object.
 "static" is a historic keyword from
C/C++
 "Class fields" is a better term
 As opposed to "instance fields"

Static Square Method
 We also added the word "static" to the
declaration of the method square():
public static double square(double x) {
return x * x;
}
 Now the method square() is shared by all
instances of the class—only one square
method for the class, not one for each instance.

Static Methods
 Static methods do not operate on a
specific instance of their class
 Have access only to static fields and
methods of the class
 Cannot access non-static ones
 "Class methods" is a better term
 As opposed to "instance methods"

 Let's take a look at Java's Math class in the API
 You cannot create an instance of the Math Class,
it's just a place to store useful static methods
 All the methods and fields are static:
Math.sqrt(16)
Math.PI
Math.abs(-3)
Java's Math Class

Static Field Examples
 Constants used by a class
(usually used with final keyword)
 Have one per class; don’t need one in each object
public static final double TEMP_CONVERT= 1.8;
 If this is in class Temperature, it is invoked by
 double t = Temperature.TEMP_CONVERT * temp;
 Constants are all capital letters by tradition (C, C++)
 For example: PI , TEMP_CONVERT etc.

Static Method Examples
 For methods that use only the arguments and
therefore do not operate on an instance
public static double pow(double b, double p)
// Math class, takes b to the p power
 For methods that only need static data fields
 Main method in the class that starts the
program
 No objects exist yet for it to operate on!

POP QUIZ
Should it be static or non-static?
 Speed of light field
 getName() method in a Person class
 A sum method that returns the
resulting of adding both its arguments
 Width data field in a Rectangle class
static
non
static
non

Lecture 11
Packages, Access, and Scope

Access & Organization
 Let’s say you have 100’s of files on your
PC. What kind of problems do you
encounter?
 can’t find particular files
 duplicate or similar file names
 hard to keep personal files private
 Solution: Sort and organize your files
into subdirectories

Packages
 Organize your classes into sets or units
 Reduce problems with name conflicts
 Identify your classes in a set with specific
functionality
How to specify the package for a class:
package <package name>;

Using Packages
 A class can always access other classes
in its own package
 A class can always access public
classes in other packages
Q: What happens if we don’t specify a
package as public or private?
A: the default level of access is package

Levels of Access Control
Visibility private package
(default)
public
From the same
class
yes yes yes
From any class
in same package
no yes yes
From any class
outside the
package
no no yes
Big line to cross!

Import Classes and
Packages
 Specify the class you want to import:
import java.util.Date;
 You can import multiple classes:
import java.util.ArrayList;
 You can also import whole packages:
import java.util.*;
 Default imported package:
import java.lang.*;

Package Example:
Person.java
package examples;
class Person {
String name;
// add a field to store a birthday
// write a method to set the birthday
// write a method to get the birthday
}

Using java.util.Date
package examples;
class Person {
String name;
java.util.Date birthday;
void setBirthday(java.util.Date d) {
birthday = d;
}
java.util.Date getBirthday() {
return birthday;
}
}

Importing java.util.Date
package examples;
class Person {
String name;
Date birthday;
void setBirthday(Date d) {
birthday = d;
}
Date getBirthday() {
return birthday;
}
}

Importing java.util.ArrayList
package examples;
import java.util.ArrayList;
class Person {
String name;
Date birthday;
ArrayList friends;
birthday = d;
}
// . . .
}

Importing java.util.*
package examples;
import java.util.*;
class Person {
String name;
Date birthday;
ArrayList friends;
birthday = d;
}
// . . .
}

Packages Quiz 1
package example1;
public class A {
public int a = 5;
}
package example1;
public class B {
int b = 5;
}
package example1;
public class C {
private int c = 5;
}
package example1;
public class quiz{
void main() {
A ant = new A();
B bug = new B();
C cat = new C();
// Which are correct?
int testa = ant.a;
int testb = bug.b;
int testc = cat.c;
}
}

Package Quiz 2
package example2;
import example1.*;
public class quiz{
void main() {
A ant = new A();
B bug = new B();
C cat = new C();
// Which are correct?
int testa = ant.a;
int testb = bug.b;
int testc = cat.c;
}
}
package example1;
public class A {
public int a = 5;
}
package example1;
public class B {
int b = 5;
}
package example1;
public class C {
private int c = 5;
}

Scope of a Variable
 Definition: the block (section) of code for
which your variable (identifier) exists
 The scope is set to the block in which you
defined your variable
 This is the block of code where you can
use the variable

Scope Quiz 1
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(y);
}
}
What is the output
of print()?
This file won't
compile, so print
will never execute

Method Scope
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
f();
System.out.println(y); // ERROR
}
}
 x is defined for the
whole class block.
 y is defined inside
the method f().

Scope Quiz 2
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
int y = 0;
f();
}
}`
Does this fix the
problem?
What is the output
of print()?
0
10
0

Scope Quiz 3
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
int y = 0;
void f() {
int y;
y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
f();
}
}
Now, we declare a
new field, y.
What is the output of
print()?
0
10
0

Scope Quiz 4
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
int y = 0;
void f() {
y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
f();
}
}
Now, we change the
method f().
What is the output of
print()?
0
10
20

Scope Quiz 5
package examples;
class Operations{
int square(int a) {
a = a * a;
return a;
}
void print() {
int a = 5;
System.out.println(square(a));
System.out.println(a);
}
}
 What is the output of
print()?
25 <- square(a)
5 <- a

Scope Quiz 6
package examples;
class Operations{
int a = 5;
int square(int a) {
a = a * a;
return a;
}
void print() {
}
}
print()?
25 <- square(a)
5 <- a

Scope Quiz 7
package examples;
class Operations{
int a = 5;
int square(int a) {
this.a = a*a;
return a;
}
void print() {
}
}
print()?
5 <- square(a)
25 <- a

Loop Scope
void adding() {
for (int j = 0; j<5; j++) {
int sum += j;
}
System.out.println(sum);
}
 What’s wrong with the above segment of code?
ERROR: sum is only defined inside the for loop

Loop Scope Fixed
void adding() {
int sum = 0;
for (int j = 0; j<5; j++) {
sum += j;
}
System.out.println(sum);
}
 sum is now defined for the whole block of
code for the adding method

Summary of Scope
 Definition: the block (section) of code for
which your variable (identifier) exists
 The scope is set to the block in which
you defined your variable
 This is the block of code where you can
use the variable

What is Inheritance?
 In the real world: We inherit traits from our
mother and father. We also inherit traits from
our grandmother, grandfather, and ancestors.
We might have similar eyes, the same smile,
a different height . . . but we are in many
ways "derived" from our parents.
 In software: Object inheritance is more well
defined! Objects that are derived from other
object "resemble" their parents by inheriting
both state (fields) and behavior (methods).

Dog Class
public class Dog {
private String name;
private int fleas;
public Dog(String n, int f) {
name = n;
fleas = f;
}
public String getName() { return name; }
public int getFleas() { return fleas; }
public void speak() {
System.out.println("Woof");
}
}

Cat Class
public class Cat {
private int hairballs;
public Cat(String n, int h) {
name = n;
hairballs = h;
}
public int getHairballs() { return hairballs; }
System.out.println("Meow");
}
}

Problem: Code Duplication
 Dog and Cat have the name field
and the getName method in
common
 Classes often have a lot of state and
behavior in common
 Result: lots of duplicate code!

Solution: Inheritance
 Inheritance allows you to write new classes
that inherit from existing classes
 The existing class whose properties are
inherited is called the "parent" or superclass
 The new class that inherits from the super
class is called the "child" or subclass
 Result: Lots of code reuse!

Dog
String name
int fleas
String getName()
int getFleas()
void speak()
Cat
String name
int hairballs
String getName()
int getHairballs()
void speak()
Dog
int fleas
int getFleas()
void speak()
Cat
int hairballs
int getHairballs()
void speak()
Animal
String name
String getName()
using
inheritance
superclass
subclass
subclass

Animal Superclass
public class Animal {
public Animal(String n) {
name = n;
}
public String getName() {
return name;
}
}

Dog Subclass
public class Dog extends Animal {
private int fleas;
public Dog(String n, int f) {
super(n); // calls Animal constructor
fleas = f;
}
public int getFleas() {
return fleas;
}
return System.out.println("Woof");
}
}

Cat Subclass
public class Cat extends Animal {
private int hairballs;
public Cat(String n, int h) {
super(n); // calls Animal constructor
hairballs = h;
}
public int getHairballs() {
return hairballs;
}
return System.out.println("Meow");
}
}

Inheritance Quiz 1
 What is the output of the following?
Dog d = new Dog("Rover" 3);
Cat c = new Cat("Kitty", 2);
System.out.println(d.getName() + " has " +
d.getFleas() + " fleas");
System.out.println(c.getName() + " has " +
c.getHairballs() + " hairballs");
Rover has 3 fleas
Kitty has 2 hairballs
(Dog and Cat inherit the getName method from Animal)

Inheritance Rules
 Use the extends keyword to indicate that
one class inherits from another
 The subclass inherits all the fields and
methods of the superclass
 Use the super keyword in the subclass
constructor to call the superclass
constructor

Subclass Constructor
 The first thing a subclass constructor must do
is call the superclass constructor
 This ensures that the superclass part of the
object is constructed before the subclass part
 If you do not call the superclass constructor
with the super keyword, and the superclass
has a constructor with no arguments, then that
superclass constructor will be called implicitly.

Implicit Super Constructor
Call
If I have this Food class:
public class Food {
private boolean raw;
public Food() {
raw = true;
}
}
then this Beef subclass:
public class Beef extends Food {
private double weight;
public Beef(double w) {
weight = w
}
}
is equivalent to:
public class Beef extends Food {
private double weight;
public Beef(double w) {
super();
weight = w
}
}

Inheritance Quiz 2
public class A {
public A() { System.out.println("I'm A"); }
}
public class B extends A {
public B() { System.out.println("I'm B"); }
}
public class C extends B {
public C() { System.out.println("I'm C"); }
}
What does this print out?
C x = new C();
I'm A
I'm B
I'm C

• Subclasses can override methods in their superclass
• What is the output of the following?
ThermUS thermometer = new ThermUS(100);
System.out.println(thermometer.getTemp());
Overriding Methods
class ThermUS extends Therm {
public ThermUS(double c) {
super(c);
}
// degrees in Fahrenheit
public double getTemp() {
return celsius * 1.8 + 32;
}
}
class Therm {
public double celsius;
public Therm(double c) {
celsius = c;
}
return celcius;
}
}
212

Calling Superclass
Methods
 When you override a method, you can call
the superclass's copy of the method by
using the syntax super.method()
class Therm {
private double celsius;
public Therm(double c) {
celcius = c;
}
return celcius;
}
}
class ThermUS extends Therm {
public ThermUS(double c) {
super(c);
}
return super.getTemp()
* 1.8 + 32;
}
}

Access Level
• Classes can contain fields and methods
of four different access levels:
• private: access only to the class itself
• package: access only to classes in the
same package
• protected: access to classes in the
same package and to all subclasses
• public: access to all classes everywhere

Variable Type vs Object
Type
 Variables have the types they are given when
they are declared and objects have the type of
their class.
 For an object to be assigned to a variable is
must be of the same class or a subclass of the
type of the variable.
 You may not call a method on a variable if it's
type does not have that method, even if the
object it references has the method.

Which Lines Don't
Compile?
Animal a1 = new Animal();
a1.getName();
a1.getFleas();
a1.getHairballs();
a1.speak();
Animal a2 = new Dog();
a2.getName();
a2.getFleas();
a2.getHairballs();
a2.speak();
Dog d = new Dog();
d.getName();
d.getFleas();
d.getHairballs();
d.speak();
}
// Animal does not have getFleas
// Animal does not have getHairballs
// Animal does not have speak
// Animal does not have getFleas
// Animal does not have getHairballs
// Animal does not have speak
// Dog does not have getHairballs

Remember Casting?
 "Casting" means "promising" the compiler
that the object will be of a particular type
 You can cast a variable to the type of the
object that it references to use that
object's methods without the compiler
complaining.
 The cast will fail if the variable doesn't
reference an object of that type.

Which Castings Will Fail?
Animal a1 = new Animal();
((Dog)a1).getFleas();
((Cat)a1).getHairballs();
((Dog)a1).speak();
Animal a2 = new Dog();
((Dog)a2).getFleas();
((Cat)a2).getHairballs();
((Dog)a2).speak();
Dog d = new Dog();
((Cat)d).getHairballs();
}
// a1 is not a Dog
// a1 is not a Cat
// a1 is not a Dog
// a2 is not a Cat
// d is not a Cat

Programming Example
 A Company has a list of Employees. It asks
you to provide a payroll sheet for all
employees.
 Has extensive data (name, department, pay
amount, …) for all employees.
 Different types of employees – manager, engineer,
software engineer.
 You have an old Employee class but need to add
very different data and methods for managers and
engineers.
 Suppose someone wrote a name system, and already
provided a legacy Employee class. The old Employee
class had a printData() method for each Employee that
only printed the name. We want to reuse it, and print pay
Borrowed with permission from Course 1.00 Notes

public … Main(…){
Employee e1…("Mary","Wang");
...
e1.printData();
// Prints Employee names.
...
}
Employee e1
lastName
firstName
printData
Encapsulation Message passing "Main event loop"
private:
REVIEW PICTURE

Employee class
class Employee {
// Data
private String firstName, lastName;
// Constructor
public Employee(String fName, String lName) {
firstName= fName; lastName= lName;
}
// Method
public void printData() {
System.out.println(firstName + " " + lastName);}
}
This is a simple super or base class.

Inheritance
Class Employee
firstName
lastName
printData()
Class Manager
salary
firstName
lastName
Class Engineer
hoursWorked
wages
firstName
lastName
printData()
getPay()
is-a
printData()
getPay()
Already written:
is-a
You next write:

Engineer class
class Engineer extends Employee {
private double wage;
private double hoursWorked;
public Engineer(String fName, String lName,
double rate, double hours) {
super(fName, lName);
wage = rate;
hoursWorked = hours;
}
public double getPay() {
return wage * hoursWorked;
}
super.printData(); // PRINT NAME
System.out.println("Weekly pay: $" + getPay(); }
Subclass or (directly) derived class

Manager class
class Manager extends Employee {
private double salary;
public Manager(String fName, String lName, double sal){
super(fName, lName);
salary = sal; }
return salary; }
super.printData();
System.out.println("Monthly salary: $" + salary);}
}
Subclass or (directly) derived class

Inheritance…
Class Manager
Salary
firstName
lastName
printData
getPay
Class SalesManager
firstName
lastName
printData
getPay
Salary
salesBonus
is-a

SalesManager Class
class SalesManager extends Manager {
private double bonus; // Bonus Possible as commission.
// A SalesManager gets a constant salary of $1250.0
public SalesManager(String fName, String lName, double b) {
super(fName, lName, 1250.0);
bonus = b; }
return 1250.0; }
super.printData();
System.out.println("Bonus Pay: $" + bonus; }
}
(Derived class from derived class)

Main method
public class PayRoll {
// Could get Data from tables in a Database.
Engineer fred = new Engineer("Fred", "Smith", 12.0, 8.0);
Manager ann = new Manager("Ann", "Brown", 1500.0);
SalesManager mary= new SalesManager("Mary", "Kate", 2000.0);
// Polymorphism, or late binding
Employee[] employees = new Employee[3];
employees[0]= fred;
employees[1]= ann;
employees[2]= mary;
for (int i=0; i < 3; i++)
employees[i].printData();
}
}
Java knows the
object type and
chooses the
appropriate method
at run time

Output from main method
Fred Smith
Weekly pay: $96.0
Ann Brown
Monthly salary: $1500.0
Mary Barrett
Monthly salary: $1250.0
Bonus: $2000.0
Note that we could not write:
employees[i].getPay();
because getPay() is not a method of the superclass Employee.
In contrast, printData() is a method of Employee, so Java can find the
appropriate version.

Object Class
 All Java classes implicitly inherit from
java.lang.Object
 So every class you write will automatically
have methods in Object such as equals,
hashCode, and toString.
 We'll learn about the importance of some
of these methods in later lectures.

Lecture 13
Abstract Classes and Interfaces

What is an Abstract
Class?
 An abstract class is a class that cannot be
instantiated—we cannot create instances
of an abstract class.
 One or more methods may be declared,
but not defined. (The programmer has not
yet written code for a few methods).
 The declared methods and classes have
the keyword abstract in their signature.

public class Employee {
public Employee(String n, double s) {
name = n;
salary = s;
}
public double getSalary() { return salary; }
public String description() {
return "employee with a salary of $ " + salary;
}
}
Employee Class

public class Student {
private String course;
public Student(String n, String c) {
name = n;
course = c;
}
public String getCourse() { return course; }
return "a student majoring in " + course;
}
}
Student Class

Common Functionality
 Student and Employee may have
common fields and methods.
getName()
 Instead of repeating code, introduce
a superclass

Example Hierarchy
 Consider the following class structure:
Person
Employee Student
Superclass
Subclasses

public class Person {
String name;
public Person(String n) {
name = n;
}
return name;
}
}
Person Class

public class Employee extends Person {
// private String name;
public Employee(String n, double s) {
super(n);
salary = s;
}
// public String getName() { return name; }
public double getSalary() {
return salary;
}
return "an employee with a salary of $" + salary;
}
}
Employee Subclass of
Person

public class Student extends Person{
// private String name;
super(n);
course = c; }
// public String getName() { return name; }
public String getCourse() {
return course; }
return "a student majoring in " + course; }
}
Revised Student

description() Method
 Let’s create Person, Employee, and Student object
Person kwame = new Student("Kwame", "CS");
Employee kojo = new Employee("Kojo", 200000);
Student yaa = new Student("Yaa", "Math");
 Description of an Employee and a Student returns:
employee with a salary of ¢200000
student majoring in Math
 Can we say: kwame.description()
 NO! the variable kwame is of type Person, which does
not have a description() method defined

String name;
name = n;
}
return name;
}
// add a method to return the
// description of a Person
}
Let's Revise Person

String name;
name = n;
}
return name;
}
return "person named " + name;
}
}
Revised Person

description() Revisited
 Now we can call the description() method
on Objects that are of type Person (instances
of a Student, Employee, or Person)
Person kwame = new
Person("Kwame");
Person kojo = new
Employee("Kojo", 200000);
Person yaa = new Student("Yaa", "Math");
kwame.description();
kojo.description();
yaa.description();

description Method
Revisited
 Now we can call the description() method on
Objects that are of type Person (instances of a
Student, Employee, or Person)
Person kwame = new Person("Kwame");
Person kojo = new Employee("Kojo", 20000);
Person yaa = new Student("Yaa", "Math");
kwame.description(); // method in Person
kojo.description(); // method in Employee
yaa.description(); // method in Student
 PROBLEM: We don’t want to create instances of
Person, just Students and Employee

Abstract Methods
 Solution: Use the keyword abstract
 A method labeled abstract is declared
but not implemented
 Rule: An abstract class can have
zero or more abstract methods
 Make description() an abstract
method in the class Person

public abstract class Person {
String name;
name = n;
}
return name;
}
public abstract String description();
}
Abstract Person Class

Abstract Classes
 Cannot instantiate or create an object of an
abstract class
Person jacob = new Person("Jacob") // ERROR!!
 An abstract class can have both abstract and
non-abstract methods
 Abstract methods need to be defined in concrete
subclasses (classes that can be instantiated)

Using Abstract Classes
 Variables can be objects of abstract types
Person p = new Student("Greg", "CS");
 Here p has the type Person, but
references an instance of a non-abstract
class, Student

Calls to Abstract Methods
Person[] people = new Person[2];
people[0] = new Employee("Evita", 2000000.0);
people[1] = new Student("Greg", "CS");
for (int i = 0; i < people.length; i++) {
Person p = people[i];
System.out.println(p.getName() + ", " +
p.description());
}
What is the output?
Evita, an employee with a salary of $200000
Greg, a student majoring in CS

public abstract class Person {
String name;
name = n;
}
return name;
}
// must declare in order to call
// method on variable of type Person
public abstract String description();
}
Abstract Person Class

Advantages
 Classes can now be very general in a
class/type hierarchy.
 This allows more abstraction in object
oriented programming.
 Have more control over inheritance in a
class/type hierarchy.
 Make a class abstract even if there are no
abstract methods

Summary of Abstract
Classes
 Partial implementation of a class
 Cannot be instantiated
 Use the abstract keyword in their
signature.
 Abstract methods are defined in
subclasses

Problem Situation
 Consider creating an Object that
represents an Intern.
 An Intern behaves like both an
Employee and a Student.
 Problem: a class can only extend
ONE other class

Interfaces
 Solution: Use an interface, which is a
set of requirements for a class
 A class can implement more than one
interface
 Methods in an interface are automatically
public and abstract
 Make Employee an interface

Interface Details
 An interface is a contract for a class.
 An interface specifies a set of methods a
class must implement.
 An interface, similar to an abstract class,
cannot be instantiated
 An interface has no constructors, only
constants and method declarations.
 Classes implement interfaces using the
keyword implements

Employee Interface
public interface Employee {
// fields are public static final constants
double STARTING_SALARY = 200000.0;
// methods are automatically public and
// abstract; must be overridden in
// classes that implement the interface
String description();
double getSalary();
}

public class Student {
name = n;
course = c;
}
public String getCourse() { return course; }
return "a student majoring in " + course;
}
}
Student Class Revisted

class Intern extends Student implements Employee {
private double income;
public Intern(String n, String c) {
super(n, c);
income = STARTING_SALARY;
}
public double getSalary() { return income; }
return "intern majoring in "+ super.getCourse() +
"with an income of $" + income;
}
}
Intern Class

Using Intern Class
Intern irish = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
System.out.println(irish.getName() + " ," +
irish.description());
}
Output:
Conor, intern majoring in Math
with an income of $200000.0

Variable Types
 A variable may have the type of an abstract
class, an interface, or a concrete class (a
non-abstract class).
 Because only a concrete class can be
instantiated, an object may only have the type
of a concrete class.
 All of these are valid variable declarations:
Intern a = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
Student b = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
Employee c = new Intern("Conor", "Math");

Variable vs Object Types
(Again)
Intern a = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
Student b = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
Employee c = new Intern("Conor", "Math");
 These expressions will not compile:
b.getSalary() // Student does not have getSalary
c.getCourse() // Employee does not have getCourse
 But all of these will:
((Employee)b).getSalary()
((Intern)b).getSalary()
((Student)c).getCourse()
((Intern)c).getCourse()

Interface Rules
 Interfaces may specify but do not
implement methods.
 A class that implements the interface
must implement all its methods.
 Interfaces cannot be instantiated.
 Interfaces may contain constants.

Lecture 14
Exceptions
Handling Errors with Exceptions

Attack of the Exception
 What happens when this method is used to
take the average of an array of length zero?
 Program throws an Exception and fails
java.lang.ArithmeticException: / by zero
public static int average(int[] a) {
int total = 0;
for(int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
total += a[i];
}
return total / a.length;
}

What is an Exception?
 An error event that disrupts the program
flow and may cause a program to fail.
 Some examples:
 Performing illegal arithmetic
 Illegal arguments to methods
 Accessing an out-of-bounds array element
 Hardware failures
 Writing to a read-only file

Another Exception
Example
 What is the output of this program?
public class ExceptionExample {
String[] greek = {"Alpha", "Beta"};
System.out.println(greek[2]);
}
}
Output:
Exception in thread "main"
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 2
at ExceptionExample.main(ExceptionExample.java:4)

Exception Message
Details
 What exception class?
 Which array index is out of bounds?
 What method throws the exception?
 What file contains the method?
 What line of the file throws the exception?
Exception message format:
[exception class]: [additional description of exception]
at [class].[method]([file]:[line number])
Example:
java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: 2
at ExceptionExample.main(ExceptionExample.java:4)
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
2
main
ExceptionExample.java
4

Exception Handling
 Use a try-catch block to handle
exceptions that are thrown
try {
// code that might throw exception
}
catch ([Type of Exception] e) {
// what to do if exception is thrown
}

Exception Handling
Example
int total = 0;
total += a[i];
}
}
public static void printAverage(int[] a) {
try {
int avg = average(a);
System.out.println("the average is: " + avg);
}
catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("error calculating average");
}
}

Catching Multiple
Exceptions
 Handle multiple possible exceptions by
multiple successive catch blocks
try {
// code that might throw multiple exception
}
catch (IOException e) {
// handle IOException and all subclasses
}
catch (ClassNotFoundException e2) {
// handle ClassNotFoundException
}

Exceptions Terminology
 When an exception happens we
say it was thrown or raised
 When an exception is dealt with,
we say the exception is was
handled or caught

Unchecked Exceptions
 All the exceptions we've seen so far
have been Unchecked Exceptions, or
Runtime Exceptions
 Usually occur because of
programming errors, when code is not
robust enough to prevent them
 They are numerous and can be
ignored by the programmer

Common Unchecked
Exceptions
 NullPointerException
reference is null and should not be
 IllegalArgumentException
method argument is improper is some way
 IllegalStateException
method called when class is in improper state

Checked Exceptions
 There are also Checked Exceptions
 Usually occur because of errors
programmer cannot control:
examples: hardware failures, unreadable files
 They are less frequent and they cannot
be ignored by the programmer . . .

Dealing With Checked
Exceptions
 Every method must catch (handle) checked
exceptions or specify that it may throw them
 Specify with the throws keyword
void readFile(String filename) {
try {
FileReader reader = new FileReader("myfile.txt");
// read from file . . .
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("file was not found");
}
}
void readFile(String filename) throws FileNotFoundException {
FileReader reader = new FileReader("myfile.txt");
// read from file . . .
}
or

Exception Class Hierarchy
Exception
RuntimeException IOException
FileNotFoundException
MalformedURLException
SocketException
ArrayIndexOutofBounds
NullPointerException
etc. etc.
SQLException
IllegalArgumentException
Unchecked Exceptions Checked Exceptions
 All exceptions are instances of
classes that are subclasses of
Exception

Checked and Unchecked
Exceptions
Checked Exception Unchecked Exception
not subclass of
RuntimeException
subclass of
RuntimeException
if not caught, method must
specify it to be thrown
if not caught, method may
specify it to be thrown
for errors that the
programmer cannot directly
prevent from occurring
for errors that the
programmer can directly
prevent from occurring,
IOException,
FileNotFoundException,
SocketException
NullPointerException,
IllegalArgumentException,
IllegalStateException

Exception Constructors
 Exceptions have at least two constructors:
1. no arguments
NullPointerException e = new NullPointerException();
2. single String argument descriptive
message that appears when exception error
message is printed
IllegalArgumentExceptione e =
new IllegalArgumentException("number must be positive");

Writing Your Own
Exception
 To write your own exception, write a
subclass of Exception and write both
types of constructors
public class MyCheckedException extends IOException {
public MyCheckedException() {}
public MyCheckedException(String m) {super(m);}
}
public class MyUncheckedException extends RuntimeException {
public MyUncheckedException() {}
public MyUncheckedException(String m) {super(m);}
}

Throwing Exceptions
 Throw exception with the throw keyword
if (a.length == 0) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("array is empty");
}
int total = 0;
total += a[i];
}
}

Keyword Summary
 Four new Java keywords
 try and catch – used to handle
exceptions that may be thrown
 throws – to specify which exceptions a
method throws in method declaration
 throw – to throw an exception

Throws and Inheritance
 A method can throw less exceptions, but
not more, than the method it is overriding
public class MyClass {
public void doSomething()
throws IOException, SQLException {
// do something here
}
}
public class MySubclass extends MyPlay {
public void doSomething() throws IOException {
// do something here
}
}

Line Intersection Example
 Consider this class Line, which has two
fields, a slope and a yIntercept
 Let's write an intersect method that returns
the x-coordinate at which the two lines
intersect.
sig Line {
private double slope;
private double yIntercept;
double getSlope() { return slope; }
double getYIntercept() { return yIntercept; }
}

 Calculating the x-coordinate at
which two lines intersect
 We could translate this directly into
the following intersect method:
Boring Math Stuff . . .
y = m1x + b1
y = m2x + b2
m1x + b1 = m2x + b2
m1x - m2x = b2 - b1
(m1 - m2)x = b2 - b1
x = (b2 - b1)/(m1 - m2)
double intersect(Line line1, Line line2) {
return (line2.getYIntercept() – line1.yIntercept()) /
(line1.slope() – line2.slope())
}

 Parallel lines will never intersect.
 If lines are parallel, then their slopes will be equal,
line1.slope() – line2.slope() = 0, and
our method will attempt to divide by zero
 Let's write a new exception ParallelException
to throw when this occurs.
What About Parallel
Lines?

ParallelException
 ParallelException will be a checked
exception because calculating whether lines
are parallel is not something we expect the
programmer to know how to do and prevent
in advance.
 Checked exceptions are a subclass of
Exception, but not RuntimeException
public class ParallelException extends Exception {
public ParallelException() {}
public ParallelException(String msg) { super(msg); }
}

Final Intersect Method
 Because it is a checked exception,
intersect must specify that it throws it
double intersect(Line line1, Line line2)
throws ParallelException
{
if (line1.slope() = line2.slope()) {
throw new ParallelException();
}
return (line2.getYIntercept() –
line1.yIntercept()) /
(line1.slope() – line2.slope())
}

Calling the intersect
Method
 A method that accepts two Lines as
arguments, calls intersect, and prints
out the results:
void printIntersect(Line line1, Line line2) {
try {
double x = intersect(line1, line2);
System.out.println("Intersect at " + x);
} catch (ParallelException e) {
System.out.println("They are parallel");
}
}

Lecture 15
I/O and Parsing
Reading and Writing with
Java's Input/Output Streams
and Parsing Utilities

Input/Output Basics
 Input/Output = I/O = communication
between a computer program and external
sources and destinations of information
 Involves Reading and Writing
 Reading input from a source
 Writing output to a destination
 Example Sources and Destinations:
 Files
 Network connections
 Other programs

Java I/O Streams
 Java uses an I/O system called
streams (pioneered in C++)
 Java provides java.io package to
implement streams
 Streams treat all external source and
destinations of data the same way: as
"streams" of information

Input vs. Output Streams
 Reading from an Input Stream
 Writing to an Output Stream

Byte vs. Character
Streams
 Byte Streams are used to read and write
data in binary format (1's and 0's)
example data: images, sounds, executable
programs, word-processing documents, etc.
 Character Streams are used to read and
write data in text format (characters)
example data: plain text files (txt extension),
web pages, user keyboard input, etc.

Java Classes
 Package java.io offers classes to connect
to streams
 To connect to a stream, instantiate a
subclass of one of these abstract
superclasses:
input output
byte InputStream OutputStream
character Reader Writer

Using a Stream Class
1. Open a stream by instantiating a
new stream object
2. While more information to read/write,
read/write that data
3. Close the stream by calling the
object’s close() method

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