2. KEY THEMES
What is ethnography?
Ethnographic principles/features
Usage of ethnography
Ethnographic skills
Access and types of sites
How to do it?
Advantages/disadvantages
Ethics
Types of ethnography
Visual anthropology
Case studies
3. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?
Ethnos: “nation, folk, people” and Grapho “I write”
= Ethnography: describing and understaning another way of life from the
native point of view (Neuman, 2007)
4. ETHNOGRAPHIC ROOTS
Anthropology: Study of cultures, relationships, humans and
their environment
Anthropologists: live within the community for an extended
period of time: interacting, studying, participating and
researching
Result: The researcher goes back home with paper/book on the
culture of that community
The application of anthropological techniques is ethnography.
Ethnography literally means the writing or report of
anthropological study.
5. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?
The systematic study and documentation of human activity without
imposing a prior interpretation on it via immersion in the environment of it
and observation of the practices/tasks that constitute it
Defined as:
- method of observing human interactions in social settings and activities
(Burke & Kirk,2001)
- also: a descriptive work produced from such research
Rather than studying the people from the outside, you learn from people
from the inside
6. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
The ethnographer become embroiled in the setting (Atkinson, 1990).
- The combination of participative and observational approaches lies at the
center of the ethnographic initiative.
“the researcher participating, overtly or covertly, in people’s daily lives for an
extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or
asking questions through informal and formal interviews, collecting documents and
artifacts – in fact, gathering whatever data are available to throw light on the issues
that are the emerging focus of inquiry” (Hammersley and Atkinson ,1995, p.3)
- Center stage to the human factors and the sense which people make of
the world. The role of the ethnographer is to observe, document, and
analyze these practices, to present them in a new light.
7. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
The ethnographic study is grounded in the context.
-It is infused with local knowledge of particular and specific kind.
- This refers to the fact that ethnography situates people and phenomena
in the context of their natural habitat rather than isolates them.
- Only in the context in which they naturally occur can behavior and
artifacts be understood.
8. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
Bottom-up perspective.
- Ethnography requires an inductive examination of facts, long-term
engagement or “immersion” in the field and a reflexive stand in order to
understand the “other” from the point of view of the other.
- It is expected from the ethnographer to enter the field without any
preconceived ideas and to stay open to new data;
9. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
“Being there”.
- He or she depends on personal contact with informants and therefore
needs to be present “physically” in the specific “field”, the natural
environment of the other that is limited in time and space.
- This sharing of time and place with informants is referred to as “being
there”. It allows the researcher to experience what is to be a member of
the group or society studied.
10. ETHNOGRAPHIC FEATURES
Reflexivity
- Acknowledgment of the own reflexivity as a researcher is needed since
the fieldworker is conceived as a research instrument (Sherry, 1991).
- Such a reflexive stand furthermore entails that the “researcher needs to
be clear about hisher objectives and the limitations he or she is working
under” (Hirsch & Gellner, 2001, p.8).
-Possibility of an ethnographer being entirely objective is rejected
- Ethnographers include their personal experiences in their findings
11. ETHNOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES
Holism
- focus on relations among activities and not a single tasks or single
isolated individuals
- everything is connected to everything else
Inductive
- started without a single hypothesis
Study people in their natural habitat / home, office, school, library,
hospital, community, etc.
Native`s point of view
- how people see their own world
- opportunity to engage with people/customers
13. SOME OF THE NEW “ETHNOGRAPHIC” METHODS IN
BUSINESS AND DESIGN
“Shadowing”
“Consumer ethnography”
“Field observation”
“ Contextual inquiry”
“ Contextual user research”
“ Observational research”
“ User-centered research”
“New product ethnography”
“Storytelling”
14. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
Observation is a flexible technique, complementing most other
data gathering techniques (McMurray, Pace & Scott, 2004). It
allows to observe the phenomena in their natural settings and
adapt our approach as needed.
What people say they do and what they actually do frequently
differ and the objective of observations is to discern the real from
the ideal, the tacit from the explicit.
15. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
‘Box of Shame” is a strategy
invented by Interaction
Design students for self-
regulation of their progress
when working with the 3D
printer.
Not mentioned in interviews
but discovered during
observations.
16. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - OBSERVING
Define what you want to observe
- What are your objectives/design goals
Keep it broad, but focused so you can be able to make new insightful
discoveries
Choose who you will observe
- Who`s perspective do you want to understand?
Create an observation check list
17. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
PERSONS
1. Sex/gender
2. Age
3. Interaction between persons
4. Cloths
5. General attitude
6. Particular activities on site
18. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
ACTIVITIES
1. How many people participate
2. Rhythm of the activities
3. Duration
4. Usual or unusual activities, etc.
19. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS –
OBSERVING/
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOCUS ON:
PERSONS-ACTIVITIES-TIME-SPACE
General
observation
guide created for
observations in
learning
environments
TIME
1.Sequence of facts and interaction
between observers and users
2. Time interval of the observation
SPACE
1. Dimensions
2. Furniture
3. Conditions
4.Material objects
5. Decoration
6. Where is this place situated?
20. DO`s & DON`ts
DO`s
Observe discreetly
Use your eyes (observe the
environment and how the
people interact with it)
Use your ears (listen to what
is said)
Work with other researchers
DON`ts
Be obvious (when taking
pictures/recording videos)
Be too concerned with taking notes
(instead focus on data naturally occurring)
Follow only one user/customer ( instead
observe different users/ situations)
Make observations with answers in mind
(use ethnography to gain deeper
understanding)
Generalize actions of individuals to reflect
a larger majority
21. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - INTERVIEWING
Semi-structured interviews.
Often one-on-one interviews with previously
prepared topics with open-ended questions.
Open-ended interview questions are
exploratory and allow participants to
interpret them and are used as opposed to
close-ended questions,which are more
confirmatory.
22. ETHNOGRAPHIC SKILLS - INTERVIEWING
Unstructured/
conversational interviews.
- These conversational interviews characterized by a total lack of structure
(Bernard, 2002) are usually not recorded but rather the researcher “tries to
remember and record conversations during the day” (Bernard,2002,p.204).
- During or after observations
23. DO`s & DON`ts
DO`s
Ask open-ended questions
Phrase properly questions to
avoid misunderstandings
Speak their language
Let user notice things on her/his
own
DON`ts
Ask simple Yes/No questions
Ask leading questions
Use unfamiliar jargon
Lead/guide the “user
24. TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Overt versus Covert
Overt
Ethnographer does not inform
participants of the study and
must balance ethical issues
Ethnographer informs
participants of their study and
is transparent about
researchno
Covert
26. FIELD RESEARCH SPECTRUM
The complete participant
– taking an insider role,
fully part of the setting and
often observes covertly
The participant as
observer – part of the
group being studied, gain
access to a setting by
having a non-research
reason for being part of
the setting
The observer as
participant – minimal
involvement in the
social setting being
studied, not normally
part of the social
setting
The complete observer
– not partaking in the
social setting at all
27. ACCESS TO FIELD SITE
OPEN
Communities
Malls
CLOSED
Social movements
Firms
Schools
Hospitals
No permission required, but
must be accepted by the group.
Go through gatekeepers
Need permission and
introduction from a gatekeeper
29. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY - PREPARATION
Preparation
- Familiarize yourself with the system/topic & its history
Identify the Focus of your inquiry
- set initial goals and prepare questions
- can be guided by design goals
Gain access and permission if necessary
30. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY
Record everything :
- your visits, observations, impressions, feelings, hunches,
emerging questions, etc.
Be meticulous
Field notes, audio and/or video recording
Follow any leads
31. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
Seek entry points rather than sites:
The ethnographer might still start from a particular place but it is encouraged
to follow connections made meaningful from that setting. A well-selected
entry point can generate a broad spatial mapping that maintains a
concentrated engagement with the research topic.
Consider multiple networks:
By considering multitude of networks up front, the many possible directions
that could be followed are laid out for the researcher to consider. In traversing
these networks, the field site becomes a heterogeneous network. The field site
as heterogeneous network incorporates mapping out the social relations of
research participants and their connections to material and digital objects and
physical sites.
32. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
Attend to what is indexed in interviews:
Language can be instrumental in providing clues about things to follow and
sites to visit. In terms of methodological practice, distinguishing and attending
to what is indexed in speech is generally treated as part of a later analysis
phase (Jovchelovitch & Bauer, 2000).
However, paying close attention to references to space and place in speech (or
texts) earlier on can also be a guide to the further movement of the researcher.
33. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – FIELD STUDY/ TIPS
Know when and where to stop:
Meaning saturation is one well-established approach that does not rely on
spatial boundaries to define the ending point of research. When interviews
with new people and observations in new locals yield a repetition of themes,
this may indicate that the research process has come to a natural conclusion.
Additionally, research that follows connections may move into a site where
there are less and less frequent encounters with the topics of interest.
When your time ends
34. HOW TO DO ETHNOGRAPHY – ANALYSIS & REPORTING
ANALYSIS
Organize data :
- Textual, Multimedia, etc.
Reduce and interpret data /
codes, categories/
Review and redevelop ideas
Consider multiple audiences
and respective goals
Prepare the report and
present the findings
Visuals can be important in
supporting written text
REPORTING
36. ADVANTAGES
“Real-world” data
Gives a rich, detailed picture of a particular situation than abstracting
aspects in isolation
Provides in-depth understanding of people
Good for studies where the topic is
- complex
- not fully understood
37. DISADVANTAGES
Depends on what the ethnographer has to offer
Context too specific
Must negotiate access
Time & Money
Data is messy and often unstructured
38. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VIRTUAL/ONLINE/ DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY OR NETNOGRAPHY
Two different ways of viewing the Internet:
As a culture:
A “virtual” place where:
People form a culture/communities
Communities make use of technology available to them
Ethnographer can go online and examine what people do in cyberspace
(interactions, conventions, ..)
39. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VIRTUAL/ONLINE/ DIGITAL ETHNOGRAPHY OR NETNOGRAPHY
As a cultural artefact:
Product of a culture
Technology produced by people in particular contexts and shaped by the
ways in which people market, develop, use it
Ethnographer can observe its structure, content, what is changing over time
40. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
AUTOETHNOGRAPHY
Is a form of self-reflection that explores the researcher`s personal
experience and connects it to wider cultural, political, social and cultural
meanings and understandings
Rather than a portrait of the Other (person, group, culture), the difference is
that the researcher is constructing a portrait of the self.
41. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
VISUAL ETHNOGRAPHY
Visual ethnography uses photography, motion pictures, hypermedia, the
web, interactive CDs, CD—ROMs, and virtual reality as ways of capturing and
expressing perceptions and social realities of people.
These varied forms of visual representation provide a means for recording,
documenting, and explaining the social worlds and understandings of people.
It is important, however, to emphasize that visual ethnography is not purely
visual.
Rather, the visual ethnographer simply pays particular attention to the visual
aspects of culture as part of his or her ethnographic efforts.
42. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Subfield of the social anthropology that is concerned with the study and
production of ethnographic photography, film and new media
Includes both the study of visual aspects of human behavior and the use of
visual media in anthropological research, representation and teaching.
Ethnographers use photography and video as tool for research since 18th
century
The anthropological filmmaking is related to non-fiction and documentary
filmmaking
- Nanook of the North, 1922 by Robert Flaherty is one of the first films
about the live of the Arctic people that serves as evidence and attempts to
record the ways-of-life of foreign societies
43. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Focus on participatory and applied anthropological initiatives in which cameras are
given to local collaborators /users as a strategy for empowerment/design/research
- Photovoice: Participants are asked to represent their communities or express their
points of view by photographing scenes that highlight research themes
Example 1:
Project Lives : A participatory photographic project used to create a new image of
project housing tenants, published in April, 2015.
Participants recruited from the projects were given single-use film cameras and
trained in a twelve-week lecture/workshop course in photography. The photographs
are underlain by a narrative documenting the challenges faced by residents,
explaining what has brought this environment to its current state, and suggesting the
stakes involved in the restoration of a once proud civic achievement.
44. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 2:
Understanding laundry processes at home. (Sarah Pink , 2004 for Unilever)
2 hours interviews and Video tours (1 hour) to identify:
- a sense of the identity, everyday life, priorities and morality of the informants,
representations of their actual everyday practice, their feelings about and use of
products, representations of their laundry process at home, a sense of the presence of
laundry and its relationship to to other elements of the material and sensory culture
of the home
Approach:
Collaboration with users and the ethnographer`s role was to work with them to
facilitate their representation of the processes, practices and routines
45. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 2:
Understanding laundry processes at home. (Sarah Pink , 2004 for Unilever)
Result:
Consumer-led representations rather than ethnographer`s first-hand observations
The importance of the video in that research:
1. Facilitates informants` self-representation – They could “show” on video how they
do things and what is important to them
2. Visual record of the encounter which documented the reflexivity of participants
but also the material context of the interaction
3. Video was also a key in communicating the research findings to the client in
addition to a written ethnographic report
46. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY
In contemporary practice
Example 3:
Law and Disorder in Lagos
https://archive.org/details/LawAndDisorderInLagosNigeria-LouisTheroux
47. PRACTICAL TASK - REDESIGN OF THE CAFETERIA AT ELISAVA
OUTCOME OF THE ETHNOGRAPHY
To gain insights and set areas for redesign of the Cafeteria at ELISAVA
TIMETABLE
1.3h for preparation and field work
1.3h for group discussion where each group will present its findings from
observations and/or interviews to the rest