Kedua contoh di atas tidak rasional memberikan antibiotik karena tidak ada bukti infeksi bakteri. Cacar air adalah infeksi virus, sementara diare ringan bisa disebabkan virus atau makanan dan tidak perlu antibiotik
Semelhante a Kedua contoh di atas tidak rasional memberikan antibiotik karena tidak ada bukti infeksi bakteri. Cacar air adalah infeksi virus, sementara diare ringan bisa disebabkan virus atau makanan dan tidak perlu antibiotik
Semelhante a Kedua contoh di atas tidak rasional memberikan antibiotik karena tidak ada bukti infeksi bakteri. Cacar air adalah infeksi virus, sementara diare ringan bisa disebabkan virus atau makanan dan tidak perlu antibiotik (20)
Kedua contoh di atas tidak rasional memberikan antibiotik karena tidak ada bukti infeksi bakteri. Cacar air adalah infeksi virus, sementara diare ringan bisa disebabkan virus atau makanan dan tidak perlu antibiotik
1. REFERAT
Penggunaan Antibiotik Yang Bijak Dan Benar
Pada Anak
Oleh: Mahesa Suryanagara
Pediatric Infectious and tropical medicine division
3. PENDAHULUAN
Penelitian pada
Negara berkembang: anak Vietnam
25-50% penggunaan 91% infeksi akut
saluran napas atas
antibiotik tidak anakterapi
rasional. antibiotik.
Penemuan antibiotik
1943 ↓ angka
kesakitan dan kematian RESISTENSI
akibat infeksi KUMAN
pengunaan berlebih!!!
Masalah
Global !!!
Blondeau J. M. Appropiate antibiotic use
5. Frekuensi penggunaan antibiotika
di Puskesmas
AFRICA
Sudan
Sw aziland
Cam eroon
Ghana
Tanzania
Zim babw e
ASIA
Indonesia
Nepal
Bangladesh
L.AMER. & CAR.
Eastern Caribean
El Salvador
Jam aica
Guatem ala
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
% of PHC patients receiving antibiotics
Source: Quick et al, 1997, Managing Drug Supply 5
6. Resistensi
Bakteria
• Resistensi obat hasil dari
paparan obat.
• Dapat bersifat genetik
Mengecah akses obat k tempat
kerja
○ ↓ Influx
○ ↑ Efflux
Menginaktifasi obat
Perubahan Tempat kerja obat
(Change Site of Action)
http://www.sciam.com/1998/0398issue/0398levybox2.html
7. Lebih hebat dari yang
diperkirakan!!
Horizontal Transmission of
Resistance Genes among Species
a.konjugasi:bakteri-bakteri
b.transduksi: bakteri via virus-bakteri
c.transformasi:paparan exogen DNA bakteri-bakteri
Gene Transfer in the Environment. Levy & Miller, 1989
http://www.sciam.com/1998/0398issue/0398levybox3.html
14. Berguna hanya untuk terapi infeksi bakteri...
Tidak semua demam karena infeksi
Tak semua infeksi karena bakteri
Tidak ada bukti bahwa antibiotik akan
mencegah infeksi bakteri sekunder pada
pasien dengan infeksi virus!!
Nyquist A. C
15. Tak semua infeksi bakteri membutuhkan
antibiotik
Pertimbangkan pilihan lain :
Antiseptik
Tindakan pembedahan
Nyquist A. C
16. Pada prinsipnya: pastikan..
Diagnosis klinis pasien
Beratnya kondisi pasien
Lama pasien sakit:
Contoh penggunaan yg salah:
dokter di Indonesia amoksisilin untuk anak
dengan infeksi virus ISPA (influenza) ↑↑
resistensi S. pneumonia terhadap gol.
betalaktam
Nyquist A. C
17. Tidak semua diagnosis klinis infeksi harus
didukung dengan pemeriksaan biakan dan
uji kepekaan
Pewarnaan Gram Informasi penting
KS
Pengambilan spesimen
sebelum pemberian AB
18. Berpikir Etiologi sebelum
pemberian AB
Diagnosis Klinis
Klinis
KS Kemungkinan sumber infeksi
Patogen yang paling mungkin
Terapi empiris
Data universal
Data lokal
19. Infeksi oleh > satu jenis kuman yang sensitif pada
antibiotik berbeda..
Eg: perforasi intra-abdomeninfeksi Gram negative, positif &
anaerobkombinasi
Infeksi mikroba diketahui tidak boleh diobati dengan anti-
mikroba tunggal. Eg:TBC
Terapi awal pada infeksi berat. Eg:sepsis.
Terbukti antibiotik tunggal tidak cukup: endkokarditis
bakterialis oleh Sterptococcus viridians.
23. Important PK/PDPK/PD
Parameter Parameters
8
Antibiotic concentration (ug/ml)
-Waktu diatas MIC
(T above MIC): waktu yg 6
Drug A
dibutuhkan suatu obat untuk Drug A
bisa mempertahankan Drug B
4
kosentrasi diatas MIC Drug B
(kosentrasi hambat minimal).
Makin singkat intervalnya, 2
makin sering pengulangan B
B
dosisnya (kurva B)
0
A Time
Time above MIC
24. Important PK/PDPK/PD
Parameter Parameters
2
B
B
0
-MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration: kosentrasi min.u/berefek pd mikroba
-Time>MIC: wkt yg dibutuhkan untuk berada tetap di reseptor dgn kosentrasi obat
diatas kosentrasi MIC
25. Important PK/PDPK/PD
Parameter Parameters
Berdasar afinitas terhadap
Reseptornya pada mikroorganisme:
2
B
B
0
26. •AB Tergantung kadar (concentration dependent) : harus
tercapai kadar obat tinggi sekali dalam darahsuntikan
bolus
•Eg: aminoglikosida tidak lagi dosis kecil tiap 8 jam dosis besar (5-
7 mg/kg BB) sekali per hari. (gambar kurva PK/PD A)
•AB tergantung waktu (time dependent): kadar tidak perlu
tinggi sekali infus kontinu selama beberapa jam. (gambar
kurva B)
27. Pemilihan cara pemberian
Oral vs parenteral
Pandangan Tradisinal
“serius = parenteral”
Kurangnya antibitik “broad spectrum”
dengan bioavailabilitas terpercaya
Obat Oral Terkini
Kadar serum > tinggi dan konstan
u/ infeksi tertentu Sebaiknya parenteral
28. Kelebihan Pengobatan Oral
Eliminasi risiko komplikasi terkait jalur intravena
Mempersingkat lama rawat inap
Menghemat kerja dan waktu perawat
Menghemat pengeluaran
29. Biaya Pengobatan
Bukan hanya “obatnya”
Pertimbangkan :
Biaya pemberian obat
Lab
Lama rawat inap
Level monitoring
Kepatuhan pasien
30. Lama pengobatan tergantung dari
jenis infeksi dan jenis antibiotik yang
dipakai.
Infeksi saluran napas atas oleh S.
Pyogenes penisilin V atau roksitromisin
selama 10 hari.
Communitiy-acquired pneumonia terapi
benzyl penisilin atau klaritromisin selama 7
hari.
Osteomielitis akut pada anakminimum 4
minggu.12
31. Deeskalasi
Infeksi berat (misalnya sepsis), terapi
antibiotik harus segera dimulai tanpa
menunggu hasil biakan Kondisi pasien
membaik pengurangan jenis antibiotik
sesuai dengan hasil biakan.
33. Contoh penggunaan AB yang tidak rasional (1)
Tanggal: 21 Maret 2011
Anak perempuan, 2 thn., menderita cacar air. Ia mendapat
resep:
Cefspan (cefixime) sir. 2 x 2.5 mL/hari
Zovirax (acyclovir) 3 x 150 mg/hari
Pertanyaan:
Apa alasan untuk meresepkan AB untuk suatu infeksi
viral?
Dan andaikan pun ada indikasi untuk memberikan AB,
mengapa dipilih sefiksim?
34. Contoh penggunaan AB yang tidak rasional (1)
Tanggal : 9 Feb. 2012
Seorang anak laki2, 3 tahun dengan diare 5 kali sehari selama 2
hari, tanpa tanda2 dehidrasi, keadaan umum baik. Ia mendapat
resep:
Bactrim (cotrimoxazole) sir: 1 sendok teh tiap 12 jam
L-bio (probiotik): 1 sachet tiap 8 jam
Zincare (zinc sulphate): 1 tab tiap 24 jam
Pertanyaan:
Apakah rasional meresepkan AB untuk anak ini?
Apakah rasional mengombinasikan Bactrim dgn. L-bio?
36. Faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan
obat
Prior
Intrinsic
Scientific Knowledge
Information Habits
Information
Influence Social &
of Drug Cultural
Factors
Industry Treatment Societal
Workload & Choices Economic &
Staffing Legal Factors
Workplace Infra- Authority &
structure Relationships Supervision
With Peers
Workgroup
WHO, Dept. Essential Drugs and Medicines Policy 36
39. Take Home “Message”
1. Jangan resepkan AB untuk demam, batuk, flu,
atau diare nonspesifik yang tidak berat dan
berbahaya. Tunggu dan amati pasien
2. Jangan resepkan antibiotik untuk sakit tenggorok
bila tidak disebabkan oleh streptokokus grup A
3. Hindarkan penggunaan AB berspektrum luas
bila tidak ada indikasi kuat
40. Bila kita perlu meresepkan AB untuk faringitis?
Dapat digunakan The scoring system by the American College of Physician and
CDC (Ebell MH, Am Fam Physician 2003; 68:938):
○ Demam +1
○ Tidak ada batuk +1
○ Limfadenopati servikal +1
○ Eksudat di tonsil +1
○ Umur: < 15 tahun +1
Jumlah skor: ….
Bila jumlah skor:
0 → tidak perlu AB atau pemeriksaan lanjutan
1-3 → rapid antigen testing (RAT)
4-5 → Terapi empiris + RAT
42. Penggunaan antibiotik sering rasional ataupun yang tidakdampak
resistensi kuman..
Pemberian antibiotik yang bijak dan benar pada anak:
Awali dengan pemilihan antibiotik secara rasional
Perhatikan pola bakteri setempat (sensitifitas)
farmakokinetik/farmakodinamik
harga.
Pengetahuan dokter : farmakokinetik dan farmakodiinamik antibiotik, pola
dan agen penyakit setempat, indikasi terapi antibiotik, ketajaman klinis,
serta edukasi atasi masalah resistensi antibiotik
43.
44. Pengendalian resistensi kuman (1)
Infeksi pada Obat
hewan/manusia Antibiotika
Berbagai faktor Berbagai faktor
Human/animal
Rational drug
Monitor infections
use Monitoring
penggunaan suplai obat
obat
Monitor Pengendalian
resistensi kuman resistensi
Adapted from Simonsen et al, 2004
45. Pengendalian resistensi kuman (2)
Infeksi pada
manusia/
hewan
Beban penyakit
Diagnostik
Perilaku peresep
Harapan pasien dan kepatuhannya
Penggunaan
obat rasional
Adaptasi dari Simonsen et al, 2004
46. Pengendalian resistensi kuman (3)
Obat
Antimikroba
Regulatory framework
Drug procurement lists
Drug quality
Management of drug supply
Penggunaan
obat rasional
Adapted from Simonsen et al, 2004
47. Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance in Healthcare Settings
Resistensi Antimikroba :
Strategi pencegahan
Patogen yang dituju
Antimicrobial-Resistant Pathogen
Pathogen
Cegah Cegah
Transmisi Infeksi
Infeksi
Resistensi
Antimikroba
Diagnosis
Penggunaan & Terapi
Optimal Efektif
Penggunaan
Antimikroba
48. Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance in Healthcare Settings
12 langkah Memutus
Resistensi Antimikroba
12 Break the chain
11 Isolate the pathogen Prevent Transmission
10 Stop treatment when cured
9 Know when to say “no” to vanco
8 Treat infection, not colonization Use Antimicrobials Wisely
7 Treat infection, not contamination
6 Use local data
5 Practice antimicrobial control
4 Access the experts Diagnose & Treat Effectively
3 Target the pathogen
2 Get the catheters out
1 Vaccinate Prevent Infections
50. the basics
Used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
Classified as bactericidal or bacteriostatic
Kill bacteria directly Prevent cell
division
Classified by target specificity:
Narrow-spectrum vs Broad range
Most modified chemically from original
compounds found in nature, some isolated
and produced from living organisms
52. ampicillin
Belongs to β-lactam group of antibiotics –
contain β-lactam ring
Broad-spectrum
Penicillin derivative that inhibits bacterial cell
wall synthesis (peptidoglycan cross-linking)
Inactivates transpeptidases on the inner
surface of the bacterial cell membrane
Bactericidal only to growing E. Coli
Widespread use leads to bacterial
resistance. HOW?
54. ampicillin resistance
β-lactamase is encoded by the plasmid-
linked bla (TEM-1) gene
Hydrolyzes ampicillin
Ampicillin levels in culture continually
depleted
55. use in synthetic biology
To confirm uptake of gene (eg. of
plasmids) by bacteria
Bacterial Transformation: DNA integrates
into bacteria’s chromosome and made
chemically competent
Exogenous DNA tagged with an antibiotic
resistance gene eg. β-lactamase
Grown in medium containing ampicillin
Ampicillin resistance indicates successful
bacterial transformation
56. Kanamycin
Targets 30s ribosomal subunit, causing a frameshift
in every translation
Bacteriostatic: bacterium is unable to produce any
proteins correctly, leading to a halt in growth and
eventually cell death
57. kanamycin
use/resistance
Over-use of kanamycin has led to many
wild bacteria possessing resistance
plasmids
As a result of this (as well as a lot of side
effects in humans), kanamycin is widely
used for genetic purposes rather than
medicinal purposes, especially in
transgenic plants
Resistance is often to a family of related
antibiotics, and can include antibiotic-
degrading enzymes or proteins protecting
the 30s subunit
58. chloramphenicol
Bacteriostatic: functions by halting bacterial
growth, which is done by inhibiting the enzyme
peptidyl transferase, a protein that assists in
the binding of tRNA to the 50s ribosomal
subunit
Three methods of resistance: reduced
membrane permeability, mutation of the 50s
subunit, and an enzyme called
chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which
inactivates chloramphenicol by covaltly linking
groups
Easy/cheap to manufacture, but unused in
western countries because of possible aplastic
anemia as a side effect
59. Antibiotic Classification
according to Goodman
Narrow Spectrum
Active against only one of the four classes
of bacteria
Broad Spectrum
Active against more than one of the classes
Boutique
Highly specialized use
Restricted to ID physicians
60. Narrow Spectrum
Active mostly against only one of the
classes of bacteria
gram positive: glycopeptides, linezolid,
daptomycin, telavancin
aerobic gram negative: aminoglycosides,
aztreonam
anaerobes: metronidazole
62. Broad Spectrum
Active against more than one class
GPC (incl many MRSA) and anaerobes:
clindamycin
GPC (not MRSA*) and GNR:
cephalosporins, penicillins, sulfonamides,
TMP/Sulfa (*include MRSA), FQ
GPC (not MRSA*), GNR and anaerobes:
ureidopenicillins + BLI, carbapenems,
tigecycline (*MRSA), tetracyclines
(*MRSA), moxiflox
GPC and fastidious: macrolides
66. Antibiotika….
Zat yg dihasilkan organisme
Bersifat baktericid dan bakteriostatik
Kemoterapi : bahan kimia yang mampu
menghambat kehidupan kuman di
dalam tubuh
Perang peneliti,klinisi versus bakteri
67. nomenklatur
Pewarnaan gram : identitas bakteri
patogen dari dari tempat infeksi &
pewarnaan
Kultur : pembiakan dan identifukasi
mikroba
Kultur positip palsu : bila kultur
terkontaminasi
Kultur negatip palsu : sampel terinfeksi &
media kultur & teknik tidak sesuai
KHM : Konsentrasi HAmbat Minimal adalah
konsentrasi antibiotik yg d/ mencegah
pertumbuhan kultur
68. Resistensi
Timbulnya daya tahan kuman terhadap
obat
Resistensi kuman bisa massal oleh
kuman yg resisten
Epidemi nosokomial di RS
69. Faktor resistensi
Pengobatan yg terlambat
Dosis terlalu rendah
Kuman adaptasi d/ obat
Pemberian A.B tidak tepat sasaran
Keadaan fisik penderita t/ mendukung
terbentuknya kuman d/ cepat
73. PENISILIN (ß Lactam)
DISTRIBUSINYAAD KE OTAK
ELIMINASI VIA RENAL
INDIKASI:
PNEUMONIA,MENINGITIS,OTITIS
MEDIA,FARINGITIS,DEMAM
REUMATIK,ENDOKARDITIS,GONORE,
ANTRAKS,KLOSTRIDIA GAS
GANGREN &
TETANUS,OSTEOMILITIS,DIPHTERI
74. PENISILIN….
PERTAMAKALI DIISOLASI DARI JAMUR
PENICILLIUM TH 1949
OVER PENISILIN RESISTENSI
(PEMBENTUKAN PENISILINASE)
SIFAT KIMIA :
PENISILIN,SEFALOSPORIN,MONOLAKT
AM (AZTREONAM) DAN KARBAPENEM
(IMIPENEM) CINCIN ß LAKTAM DI
PUSAT->PECAH BY ß-LAKTAMASE
75. GOLONGAN PENISILIN
PENISILIN G (300.000-6 JUTA UNIT)
PROKAIN PENISILIN
BENZATIN PENISILIN
AMPISILIN
AMOKSISILIN
OKSASILIN & KLOKSASILIN
SEFALOSPORIN
76. PENISILIN….
ASAM KLAVULANAT , PROBENISID
MEMPERKUAT KERJA PENISILIN
(contoh: AUGMENTIN & TIMENTIN)
REAKSI ALERGI: REAKSI PENISILIN
BERKISAR DARI RUAM KULIT
SAMPAI SYOK ANAFILAKTIK &
POTENSIAL MENGANCAM JIWA
77. SEFALOSPORIN
MEKANISME SAMA D/ PENISILIN
15 % Px ALERGI PENISILIN JUGA
ALERGI SEFALOSPORIN
PERTAMA KALI U/ BAKTERI GRAM
POSITIP
82. TETRASIKLIN
GOL SPETRUM LUAS
PADA BAKTERI GRAM + DAN GRAM -
PADA
RIKETSIA,AMUBA,MIKOPLASMA,
TRAKOMA
PER OS BAIK,
METABOLIT PADA GIGI & TULANG
83. KLORAMFENIKOL
SPEKTUM LUAS JUGA
SPESIFIK PADA BAKTERI
SALMONELLA TYPOA, HEMOPHILIS
INFLUENZA, Boedetella Pertusis
Efek SAMPING : KEBUTAAN & ALERGI
LARANGAN IBU MENYUSUI
85. Tetrasiklin
Antibiotik spektrum luas
Baik pd bakteri gram -/+
Juga pd Riketsia,amuba,trakoma
Bila dosis tidak tepat menyebabkan
resistensi/kebal
Penggunaanya per os
Dipengaruhi makanan,logam semacam
Al,Mg,Ca dan Fe
86. Metabolit tetrasiklin ditimbun di tulang &gigi
Keracunan obat: mual & muntah
Bisa diare dan dehidrasi berat
Keracunan gawat pada hati & ginjal
Merupakan obat pilihan kolera
Juga dapat pada infeksi
pernapasan,gonore,akne
Dosis 1-2 gram per oral
88. streptomisin
Bentuk injeksi
Bakteriostatik
Obat pilihan untuk TBC,Lepra
Hati2,resistensi sangat cepat
Ekskresi melalui ginjal & empedu
Keracunan: reaksi alergi sampai syok
anafilaksi berat
89. Kanamisin,Neomisin,Amikasi
n,Gentamisin & Tobramisin
Bakterisid pd gram + dan –
Penyerapan neomisin & kanamisin per
os jelek sdgkan gentamisin & tobramisin
baik
Sediaan salep Gentamisin banyak
diberikan pd luka bakar & luka pd kulit
90. Eritromisin
Aktivitas mirip penisilin
Kekuatan lebih rendah
Sebagai preparat pengganti penisilin
Per os baik
Keracunan: mual,muntah,superinfeksi dan
alergi
Spiramisin mirip eritromisin(Ex Spiradan
tab & syrup)
Azitromicin tab,syrup (Zitromax tab,syrup)
91. Kel Polimiksin
Polimiksin A
Polimiksin Byang dipakai
Polimiksin C
Polimiksin D
Polimiksin Eyang dipakai
Keduanya aktif untuk bakteri gram –
Indikasi : infeksi
pseudomonas,shigela,disentri &
enterobakter
Banyak dipakai untuk topikal (salep)
saja,sal napas
Notas do Editor
Data dari Amrin study: 55-80% penggunaan AM di suatu RS di Sby adalah tanpa indikasi, sedangkan untuk profilaksis13-55% juga tanpa indikasi
Let’s review the basic science of resistance briefly. How does resistance develop? It is genetic. Resistance genes certainly occur naturally. (The definition of an antibiotic is a naturally produced substance which and antimicrobial activity). There are three basic mechanisms by which resistance genes work: 1. They encode for enzymes that degrade the antibiotic, 2. They encode for changes in the site of action, or 3. They encode for molecular mechanisms to prevent entry or speed exit of the antibiotic from the cell
Bacteria have been around for 3.5 billion years longer than we have. They’ve gotten good at genetic engineering and they can do it with a generation time of 20 minutes under optimum circumstances.. Bacteria can alter their genetic material in many more ways than higher animals. Unlike higher animals, bacteria posses both chromosomal and plasmid DNA. Resistance can be acquired by: Chromosomal Mutation with vertical transmission to progeny Horizontal Transfer of Resistance Genes by plasmids, integrons, bacteriophages and scavenging into either plasmid or chromosomal DNA. Resistance genes often travel in cassettes on integrons or in clusters on plasmids, so selection driven by the presence of a single antibiotic can simultaneously select for resistance to multiple antibiotic classes. Horizontal gene transfer occurs not just intra-species, but inter-species as well.
Many more poorer prescription can be found, e.g. including enzymes, loperamide, combination of antimicrobials in compound.
An antibiotic is a substance or compound that that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria. They are broadly classified based on lab behavior as bactericidal (kill bacteria directly) or bacteriostatic (prevent cell division). Also categorized by target-specificity: Narrow-spectrum antibiotics target specific bacteria such as Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria, while broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wider range of bacteria.
This diagram shows the various targets of antibiotics on the structure and functions carried out by bacteria. The beta-lactams group of antibiotics, which I will talk more about shortly, has an effect on the construction of cell walls by many different types of bacteria.
Ampicillin is a type of beta-lactam antibiotic that has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. It is considered part of the aminopenicillin family and belongs to the B-lactam group of antibiotics because of its characteristic B-lactam ring that consists of 3 carbon atoms and 1 nitrogren atom. (Show Slide 4) Ampicillin is a broad-range antibiotic so it can penetrate both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The penicillin derivative acts as a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, found on the inner surface of the cell surface membrane and which is essential for bacterial cell wall synthesis. It inhibits the third and final stage of cell wall synthesis, which ultimately leads to cell lysis. Ampicillin can also act as a bactericidal in the presence of E. Coli bacteria. However, as I mentioned before, beta-lactam drugs such as ampicillin have been popular for decades for the treatment of bacterial infection, hence certain bacteria have been able to develop counter-measures to nullify the antibiotics effectiveness. This evolutionary process is known as a buildup of drug resistance. There are several different underlying molecular mechanisms to antibiotic resistance, and I will explain the mechanism specific to ampicillin.
Ampicillin resistance is achieved by the cleavage of the beta-lactam ring by the beta-lactamase enzyme.
The enzyme is coded for by the plasmid-linked bla gene which hydrolyzes ampicillin by cleaving the beta-lactam ring. This can be witnessed when a plasmid that has been inserted into a bacterium is first coupled with the bla gene and then the bacterium is placed in a culture medium containing ampicillin – causing ampicillin levels to be continually depleted.
So now the most important question, is how the ampicillin-beta lactamase mechanism can be useful to us as a synthetic biology technique? It is often used as a selective agent to confirm the uptake of genes by bacteria (eg. plasmids). As we heard in a previous presentation, bacterial transformation results in the integration of the same of foreign DNA from the media surrounding the bacteria to produce chemically competent cells. If the exogenous DNA is tagged with an antibiotic resistance gene eg beta-lactamase and then grown in a medium containing ampicillin, only the bacteria that had successfully taken up the desired DNA become ampicillin resistant and do not become lysed by the ampicillin. This is then quite an accurate way to confirm whether or not successful bacterial transformation has occurred.
Kanamycin is a chemical compound which targets the 30s ribosomal subunit in prokaryotes, binding in such a way as to cause a frameshift in every translation. This has a "bacteriostatic" effect: the bacterium is unable to produce any proteins correctly, leading to a halt in growth and eventually cell death.
Over-use of kanamycin has led to many wild bacteria possessing resistance, which is encoded in plasmids. As a result of this (as well as a lot of side effects in humans), kanamycin is widely used for genetic purposes rather than medicinal purposes, especially in transgenic plants. Resistance is often to a family of related antibiotics, and comes in three variaties: antibiotic-degrading enzymes, reduced membrane permeability, or proteins protecting the 30s subunit.
Chloroamphenicol is also bacterio static; it halts bacterial growth by inhibiting the enzyme peptidyl transferase, a protein that assists in the binding of tRNA to the 50s ribosomal subunit in prokaryotes. Three methods of resistance exist: reduced membrane permeability, mutation of the 50s subunit, and an enzyme called chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which inactivates chloramphenicol by covaltly linking groups. Indeed, there is much similarity in function, use and resistance between kanamycin and Chloroamphenicol.