Advice on academic_writing_

1. Advice on academic
writing
ISFD N 41
Language and weitten expression IV
Teacher: Saubidet, Stella Maris
Student: Gonzalez, Lucia
Date: May, 2020.

2. Index
General. Slide 3
Planning and organizing Slide 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
Reading and researching Slide 9, 10 and 11
Using sources Slide 12
Specific types of writing Slide 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19
Style and editing Slide 20, 21 and 22
English as a second language Slide 23
Further sources Slide 24
Bibliography Slide 25

3. How to write an essay?
1. Formulate questions you will seek to answer
in your essay, according to the TOPIC.
2. Should have an ARGUMENT develop a
thesis or hypothesis to answer that question.
3. Test your argument ask yourself what might
be against it.
4. Organization presents a clear and persuasive
argument.
5. Start writing for exploration and discovery.
6. Take a break to see your work objectively.
7. After a well organized draft revise sentences
and diction.
To develop your power of reasoning keep in mind
the following aspects:
❖ note wich concepts or methods the topic
ask you to use.
❖ note the key terms in the assignment
Analyse
compare
evaluate
argue
❖ look for controversies in the material to find
issues that need discussing
Understanding essay topics:

4. Planning and organizing
Organizing an essay
Organize your paper during
the pre-writing stage
Know what kind of genre you should
use
The structure of an essay shouldn’t
follow the structure of the source
material
Do some reading and
researching before you start to
plan your essay
Techniques for planning
1- Index cards write down
every idea, fact or quotation.
2- The computer you can
collect your points
consecutively.
3- The circle method helps
you to have your ideas into a
single page, but the limit of
the page is a disadvantage
Main
idea
Supporting
idea
Supporting
idea
The circle
method

5. produce a logical
and orderly
argument
Planning
Planning
too much
or too little
Overplanning
Produce
economical paper,
avoid repetition.
take time that
you can use to
write or revise
produce papers
that try to cover
too much
information
notice whether
you have left
anything out.
Doesn’t provide
opportunity to
discover new
ideas in the
process of writing
Thesis statements should
be:
● intriguing
● worth attention
● suitable complex

7. A series of related
sentences
developing a
central idea, called
the TOPIC
A paragraph is unified if all the
sentences relate to the topic sentence.
A topic sentence is the main point of
the paragraph and has a specific main
point.
It works best at the beginning of a
paragraph. The body paragraph
develops the topic sentence through an
ordered, logical progression of ideas.
How to develop ideas in a paragraph?
➔ Illustration: examples, details or relevant quotations.
➔ The definition paragraph: it define a term avoiding dictionary
definitions.
➔ The classification paragraph (first, second, etc.)
➔ Contrast paragraph: similarities or differences between two sources,
positions or ideas.
➔ Qualification paragraph: acknowledges that what you previously
asserted is not absolutely true or always applicable.
➔ Process paragraph: follows a chronological sequence.
➔ A single paragraph may be develop by a combination of methods

8. What is a topic sentence?
It’s the main point of a
paragraph, it alerts readers
about the most important points
in your essay’s argument.
Where do topic sentences go?
Usually appears at the very
beginning of paragraphs.
How to make ideas flow in a paragraph:
➔ The flow is the way a paragraph moves
from idea to idea.
➔ Show connections.
➔ Deliberate repetition of keywords, or
synonyms of key words
➔ Strategic use of pronouns.
➔ Specialized linking words:
♦ reinforcement of ideas: also, in other
words, in addition.
♦ change in ideas: but, however, on the
other hand, instead, nevertheless.
♦ conclusion: thus, therefore, finally,
ultimately
Does topic sentence have to be at the
beginning of a paragraph?
no, though is usually the most logical
place for it
How to come up with a topic sentence
Ask yourself what’s going on your
paragraph.
Relating the topic sentence to the
thesis helps strengthen the coherence
of the essay.
Use a topic sentence to show how the
paragraph contributes to the
development of the argument.

9. Reading and researching
Critical reading toward critical writing
To read critically is to make judgments
about how a text is argued.
● Don’t read looking only or rimarly
for information.
● Read looking for ways of thinking
about the subject matter.
❖ central claims or purpose of the text. (its
thesis)
❖ Judgment about context. (what audicences
is written for? what’s the historical context?
❖ Kinds of reasoning, text organization.
❖ Examine the evidence.
❖ Evaluations
Practical tips!
1- Begin by skimming research
materials, introductions and
conclusions.
2- Learn to highlight the important
parts (arguments).
3- When you use a quotation from a
source, introduce the reasons why you
are using it.

10. Taking notes from research
reading
Know what kind of ideas you need to record
To read with a purpose in mind you need to focus in the topic before
start the research. Review the commonly known facts about your
topic. Try making a preliminary list of subtopics. Choose an angle that
interest you and formulate your research question. Then you will
know what to look for in your research: facts and theories that help
answer your question and other people’s opinions.
Label your notes intelligently
1- Compress ideas in your own words.
2- Keep your notetaking focussed, grouping and synthesizing ideas.
3- Leave space for comments, second thoughts and cross-references
Good note taking strategies will help you read
with more understanding and save time
Dealing with new words
You don’t need to interrupt your reading to look up
every hard word
While reading:
● Attempt a pronunciation: You might recognize the
word when you hear it.
● Examine the structure: look for familiar word part
(prefixes and suffixes)
● Context: guess the word’s meaning from the way it is
used in the context.
● Check the dictionary: if you you still can’t understand
the meaning of the word.
● Confirm guesses.
Reinforcing new vocabulary:
● Make a list card.
● Write a brief definition on the card.
● Read over the card periodicalky.
● Try to write sentences using the new word without
look at the card.
● Spend time reading to help building up your
vocabulary.

11. Research using the internet
Reading to write:
Skmming can get a sense of the text
overall logical progression. 1- read
carefully the introduction paragraph
and try to predict the direction of
the arguments. 2- read the topic
sentence, it can help you knowing
what the text would be about. 3- pick
up the larger and significant
concepts. 4- read the concluding
paragraph to know what is the
author overall purpose.
Scanning is basically skimming with a
more tightly focused purpose. It is
essential in the writing of research
papers to locate a particular fact.
Summarizing a text is an useful study tool.
A summary has two aims, first to identify
the general concepts and to Express these
concepts or ideas using precise, specific
language. Methods for summarizing:
● Include the title and the author in
the first sentence.
● The first sentence or two should
contain the author’s thesis in your
own words.
● Divide the article into sections, cover
the key ideas in each section.
● Omit non relevant ideas, details and
examples.
● Avoid writing opinions
● Be careful not to plagiarize the
author's words.
Skimming and scanning Summarizing
Students usually use internet when
they need to do some research. It is
different from library research and
this can be a problem:
● Books and other materials are
organized in the library
systematically catalogued and
cross-references.
● On the internet,anyone, can
write and there is not review or
screening process.

12. Using sources
How not to plagiarize:
● Give the reference as soon as you've mentioned
the idea you’re using, name the authors and
then indicate your own stand.
● If you write your own ideas in your own words
you need to keep mentioning authors and pages
date show your ideas are related to those of the
experts.
● Some ideas are ‘common knowledge’ and you
don't need to name a specific source for them.
● You need to document quotations, paraphrases,
or summaries.
● If your ideas are of “common knowledge” you
don't need to give a reference.
Traditional endnotes with superscript numbers: if you're
writing about a single literary text, use parenthesis inside
your sentences to give page or line numbers.
MLA System: its citation format uses parenthetical in-text.
Provides a list of “‘core elements”, author, title of source’
title of container, other contributors, version, number,
publisher, publication date’ location.
APA Syste: this system uses only initials for author's
names, no quotation mark's for journal titles.
Numbers Note systems: Many sciences and applied
sciences use a citation-sequence system. They give
numbered notes in square brackets in the text and then
add a numbered list of sources at the end.
Standard documentation formats

13. Specific types of writing
Book review
Your review should show that you can
recognize arguments and engage in
critical thinking.
1- identify the specific topic, overall
purpose. 2- how the work contribute to
the overall topic of your course? 3-kinds
of materials that the work present. 4-
how is this material used to demonstrate
and argue the thesis? 5- what are your
own reactions and opinions regarding
the work?
The literature review
Is an account of what has been published on a topic, is part of
the introduction to an essay, research report or thesis. The
purpose is to convey the reader what ideas have been
established on a topic. It is not just a set of summaries. Two skills
that literature review gives you
1. Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature
efficiently to identify a set of useful articles and books.
2. Critical proposal: the ability to apply principles of analysis
to identify unbiased and valid studies.
A literature review must:
● Be organized around the thesis
● Synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not.
● Identify ideas of controversy.
● Formulate questions that need further rresearch.

14. The abstract
An abstract is a first impression of the text that follows.
It allows readers to choose if they want to continue
reading.
Points to keep in mind about abstracts:
● Will be read with the title so do not repeat or
rephrase the title, make it complete enough to
stand on it's own.
● Emphasize the different points in proportion to
the emphasis they recieve in the body of the
document.
● Avoid using I or we
● Avoid using trade names, acronyms,
abbreviations, or symbols.
● Use the most important terms and concepts
from the document that will attract people to
read your piece.
The comparative essay
What is a comparative essay? It ask you to compare at least two
items depending on the assignment. Keep in mind that you should
compare considering similarities and differences, compare and
contrast.
The basis for comparison:
● Provided by the essay question.
● Develop a list of similarities and differences.
● Come up with a structure for your essay:
Alternating method: point by point pattern; find common
points between your central subject's. It works better if you
juxtapose your points about A and B
The block method: subject by subject pattern; discuss all of
A and then all of B.

15. Writing about history
A good historical question must be interesting
enough to catch people's attention about the topic
you want to present. It should be narrow to be easy
to communicate what happened and why. In order
to accomplish this you should choose a particular
geographic place, subject group and periodization.
Pmary source➡is a document that was created at
the time of the event or subject you have chosen,
by people who were observers of or participants in
that event or topic. It can include written texts,
objects, films, paintings, what is important is when
it was made and not what it is. Primary sources
would NOT include books written by historians.
Secondary sources ➡️are not written by the time
the events had happened. Like historians
introduction of a book or editorial comments. The
book will remain being a primary source but
anything written after it is a secondary source.
● Avoid plot summary: the purpose is to advance an
argument, mention only details that are important to your
argument.
● Analytical thesis: must be complex enough that it would not
be immediately obvious to the reader, but simple enough
so it can be in a short space.
● The structure of your argument should determine the
structure of your paper.
● Analyze instead of evaluating judgments: analyzing the
work can help you focus on the ideas the text convey and
the ways it goes about conveying them.
● Don't confuse the author with the speaker: don't assume
that the author is also the narrator.
● Pay attention to content, the chronological sequence of
events in a literary work, and technique, the various ways
in which the author creates meaning.
● Integrate quotations fully into your argument
Writing about literature

16. Writing a philosophical essay
● Read the text carefully, with focus attention on
key ideas, concepts and arguments.
● Organize your ideas into a logical structure
● Argument your thesis with a road map that
reveals the structure of your argument.
● The exposition should be clear and accurate.
● Critically evaluate a philosophical theory, think
about its strengths and weaknesses and the
possible criticisms to the philosopher’s
argument.
● Develop your own answers to philosophical
questions, giving reasons, answering objections
and evaluating alternative approaches.
A science paper should be written in a clear and concise style, its
paragraph should be coherent, and its ideas should be well organized.
Features of science writing:
● Audience.
● Titles: can be fragments or full sentences.
● Headings: emphasize the systematic nature of scientific enquiry
and provide an organization tool.
● Jargon: refers to language that is unrecognizable to most people.
This can happen when the language is too difficult and can obscure
meaning; or because the terminology is common to a discipline
and can be indispensable.
● Sources: do not generally rely on direct quotation. Science sources
rely on the citation sequence system of referencing; it’s a list on a
separate page at the end of the paper that sequence numerically
according to the order in which the sources are cited in the paper.
Writing in the sciences

17. How to use active voice in the sciences● Passive vs Active voice: science
have often encouraged the use of
passive voice because it helps to
emphasize the objectivity of the
sciences.
● Tense: use present tense when
you're making assertions about
nature or concepts, use past
tense when you are describing
what you did or asserted, use
future tense when you lay out
your plan in a proposal and use
present perfect when you are
describing what you have done in
the past and still continuing to
the present.
Slowly, science journals are returning to prefer
active voice because of it's clear, simple sentence
structure.
If there is a good reason to use passive voice, you
can do it.
● You may want to draw attention to the
object and not the subject.
● There may be no known or obvious subject.
● You may not be able to identify the subject
with precision.

18. Writing an effective admission letter
● Be focused: research the program
widely looking for hints about its
value and identity.
● Be coherent: a clearly organized
letter can create a picture of a
close-minded and sensible person.
Check you topic sentences to see if
they make sense.
● Be interpretive: you need to make
an impression concisely. Use nouns
and adjectives that name qualities
and verbs that show action.
● Be specific.
● Be personal: don't be afraid to
mention problems or weaknesses if
you can show how you overcome
them and what you learned from
the experience.
Applications letters and resumes.
● Keep the readers interesting
mind: know about the
organization and recognize what
it wants and needs.
● Balance facts and claims.
● Write concisely: do not repeat
every detail in your lletter.
Specific points about application letters
● Use standard letter format, with
internal addresses and
salutations.
● Start strong and clear
● Use paragraph structure.
● End strongly by requesting an
interview
Specific points about resumes.
● Have more than one on hand.
● Make them easy to read by
using headings, point form and
lots of white space.
● Use a fancy page design from a
software package.
● Choose between the
traditional chronological
organization (with the main
sections education and
experience) and the functional
one (where sections name
types of experience or qualities
of character).
● List facts in reverse
chronological order, with the
most recent first.

19. The academic proposal
An academic proposal is the first step in producing a thesis
or major project. Its intent is to convince a supervisor that
your topic and approach are sound, so that you gain
approval to proceed with the actual research.
It contains a rationale for the choose of topic -showing why
it is important- a review of existing published work that
relates to the topic and an outline of your intended
approach or methodology
Oral presentations become easier with preparation
and practice.
● Sign up early, but being the 1st doesn't allow
you to notice strengths and weaknesses.
● It helps to know what's expected df you.
● Choose your topic carefully.
● Define the scope of your research.
● Organize your talks as you wessay in an essay.
● Try to make use of supplementary media to
illustrate or illuminate aspects of your talk.
● Leave time to rehearse your presentation.
● Be relaxed and confident during your
presentation.
● Treat your presentation like a well-planned
performance.
● Handle questions with confidence.
● After your seminar, take time to assess you
performance.
Oral presentation
Writing for the public
● Know your audience
● Provide context and be concrete
● Mind your language
● Do research if necessary, but don't write a research
page.
● Set aside many of the conventions you’ve learned
about academic essays.

20. Style and editing
Revising one editing
Revising gives you the chance to preview your work, it involves
some checking of details.
● Start large, end small: first check if you have fulfilled the
intention of the assignment.
● The look at overall organization, make a clear introduction
and check that each section is in the right place to fulfill your
purpose and that you draw connections between the
sections.
● Now polish and edith your style by reading passages aloud,
using spell check and don't depend on grammar checker.
● Include a cover page (with the title of your paper, the name
of the course, your name, the date and the instruction’s
name. Number your pages, use a standard font and put the
reference list or bibliography.
Common errors
● Lack of agreement in subjects - verbs, nouns -
pronouns, pronouns - pronouns.
● Sentence fragments: a sentence consists of an
independent unith with at least a subject and a
verb.
● Overly-long sentences: a sentence should Express
only one idea or a clearly connected set of ideas.
● Overuse of passive voice.
● Faulty parallelism: parallel elements into a
sentences add clarity and emphasis.
● Vague pronouns.
● Dangling modifiers
● Squinting modifiers.
● Mixed or dead metaphors.
● Faulty word choise/ diction.
● Wordiness
● Comma splices.
● Misuse of comma, semicolon and colon.

21. Punctuation
Take full advantage of punctuation, don't be afraid of using
it incorrectly. Punctuation provides you with considerable
control over meaning and tone.
Commas: commas are the most frequently and the hardest
to master. These are the comma uses:
1. When an introduction phrase is too long a comma
will help your reader to recognize where the main
clause begins.
2. When joining two independent clauses with a
coordinating conjunction you normally place a
comma before the conjunction.
3. Do not provide a comma when you are joining mere
phrases.
4. Place commas between each element of a list,
phrases or clauses.
5. Surround interrupting clauses or phrases that are not
essential in the sentence with commas.
Semicolons has two main uses, to combine two closely
related independent clauses into one sentence or to
separate list elements that are long or complex.
Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward, the
words preceding the colon create an expectation.
Dashes, like commas, are used to set off interrupting
clauses or phrases, and like a colon dashes allows you to
expand on or to complete an idea.
Parenthesis offer a third way of introducing interrupting
material, it offers a more tentative and modest
alternative to commas. Parenthesis can also enclose full
sentences.

22. Passive voice
What is passive voice? In an active sentence, the person or thing
responsible for the action in the sentences comes first. In a passive
sentence the actor of the action is added at the end introduce with the
preposition “by”.
When do I use passive voice?
● The actor is unknown.
● The actor is irrelevant.
● You are talking about a general truth.
● You want to emphasize the person or thing acted on.
● You are writing in a scientific genre.
When Should I avoid passive voice? In academic writing can get
you into trouble. Academic writing often focuses on differences
between the ideas of different researchers, many passive sentences
can create confusion.
Some tools to improve your spelling
● Use a good dictionary.
● Be consistent about using British or American
spellings in your writing.
● Always check certain “troublesome” suffixes
in your dictionary.
● Create your own “difficult-to-spell” list.
● Learn the standard pronunciations for
frequently misspelled words.
● Watch out for homophones, near-
homophones, and other easily confusable
words.
● Use your computer spell checker, but with
caution.

23. English as a second language
Using articles
Articles are special modifiers
that appear before nouns or
noun phrases. There are
only two articles the and
a/an. There are other
special modifiers called
determines or markers that
may appear in front of a
noun phrase (this, that,
these, those, my, her, your,
all, etc.)
Using grounds and infinitive
Both grounds and infinitive can replace a
noun as the object of a verb. Whether you
use a ground or an infinitive depends on the
main verb in the sentence.
● Gerunds can follow a preposition,
infinitive cannot.
● Some verbs are followed by a
pronoun or noun referring to a
person, and then an Infinitive,
gerunds cannot be used in this
position
Verbs for referring to sources.
You can indicate your attitude to the
sources you cited by choosing specific
verbs to refer to them. There is a wide
choice OS such verbs in English. Use a
dictionary to check that you have chosen a
verb with the nuance you intend

24. Further sources
Advice on Academic Writing
The advice files on this site answer the kinds of
questions that University of Toronto students ask about
their written assignments. Most were created by writing
instructors here—people who are familiar with U of T
expectations.

25. Bibliography
● University of Toronto https://writing.utoronto.ca/