The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach.
This case study examines the use of Facebook to engage students in understanding Shakespearean drama. Specifically, it involves 20 students in a drama course who will use Facebook to discuss and make meaning from Shakespeare's plays. The study aims to see how an online social network can facilitate learning literary texts. It is limited to this small group but could provide insights for how teachers can integrate technology into teaching. The case study will collect data on students' Facebook discussions and interpret how this platform supports comprehending difficult aspects of Shakespearean works.
The document discusses case study methodology. It defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon in its real-life context. Case studies can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. They have strengths like providing rich detail but limitations like difficulty establishing causation and potential for bias. The document outlines key parts of a case study and characteristics like being holistic and context-sensitive.
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdfssusercf9767
This document discusses various types of research including quantitative research, qualitative research, scientific research, historical research, descriptive research, survey research, case study research, experimental research, and literature reviews. It provides definitions and examples of each type of research. The key aspects covered include how quantitative research aims to quantify variables through structured data collection, while qualitative research is exploratory in nature. It also discusses the importance of reviewing relevant literature as an integral part of the research process.
This document provides an overview of descriptive research and case study methodology. It defines descriptive research as collecting information directly from individuals, such as through surveys, interviews, or observations. Case studies are described as an in-depth analysis of a single subject, event, or group to explore causes and relationships. The document outlines different types of case studies and methods for data collection and analysis, including pattern matching, explanation building, and time series analysis. Limitations and best practices for case studies are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It discusses various qualitative research designs including case studies, comparative studies, retrospective studies, and longitudinal qualitative studies. It also covers qualitative research sampling techniques like theoretical sampling and purposive sampling. Common qualitative study designs such as ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research are defined. The document also discusses principles of qualitative research including saturation, appropriateness of the approach, and fitting the approach into the research process.
This document discusses various qualitative non-experimental research designs, including phenomenological research, ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies. It provides definitions, goals, characteristics, steps, and examples of each design. Qualitative research seeks to understand human experiences in depth rather than draw conclusions from large samples. The researcher observes phenomena as they naturally occur without manipulation.
The document summarizes different qualitative research designs including phenomenological, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, case study, and action research approaches. It provides definitions and examples of each approach. For phenomenology, an example study examines the lived experiences of mothers of suicidal adolescents. For ethnography, a study looks at school-based support groups for adolescents with addicted parents.
This case study examines the use of Facebook to engage students in understanding Shakespearean drama. Specifically, it involves 20 students in a drama course who will use Facebook to discuss and make meaning from Shakespeare's plays. The study aims to see how an online social network can facilitate learning literary texts. It is limited to this small group but could provide insights for how teachers can integrate technology into teaching. The case study will collect data on students' Facebook discussions and interpret how this platform supports comprehending difficult aspects of Shakespearean works.
The document discusses case study methodology. It defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon in its real-life context. Case studies can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. They have strengths like providing rich detail but limitations like difficulty establishing causation and potential for bias. The document outlines key parts of a case study and characteristics like being holistic and context-sensitive.
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdfssusercf9767
This document discusses various types of research including quantitative research, qualitative research, scientific research, historical research, descriptive research, survey research, case study research, experimental research, and literature reviews. It provides definitions and examples of each type of research. The key aspects covered include how quantitative research aims to quantify variables through structured data collection, while qualitative research is exploratory in nature. It also discusses the importance of reviewing relevant literature as an integral part of the research process.
This document provides an overview of descriptive research and case study methodology. It defines descriptive research as collecting information directly from individuals, such as through surveys, interviews, or observations. Case studies are described as an in-depth analysis of a single subject, event, or group to explore causes and relationships. The document outlines different types of case studies and methods for data collection and analysis, including pattern matching, explanation building, and time series analysis. Limitations and best practices for case studies are also discussed.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods. It discusses various qualitative research designs including case studies, comparative studies, retrospective studies, and longitudinal qualitative studies. It also covers qualitative research sampling techniques like theoretical sampling and purposive sampling. Common qualitative study designs such as ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, and participatory action research are defined. The document also discusses principles of qualitative research including saturation, appropriateness of the approach, and fitting the approach into the research process.
This document discusses various qualitative non-experimental research designs, including phenomenological research, ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies. It provides definitions, goals, characteristics, steps, and examples of each design. Qualitative research seeks to understand human experiences in depth rather than draw conclusions from large samples. The researcher observes phenomena as they naturally occur without manipulation.
The document summarizes different qualitative research designs including phenomenological, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, case study, and action research approaches. It provides definitions and examples of each approach. For phenomenology, an example study examines the lived experiences of mothers of suicidal adolescents. For ethnography, a study looks at school-based support groups for adolescents with addicted parents.
A case study is an in-depth examination of a particular situation or small group that aims to describe and explain phenomena of interest. Case studies allow researchers to closely examine data within a specific context, study contemporary real-life situations, and test theoretical models in real-world scenarios. Case studies are useful for improving learning experiences as they require participation and application of skills. Exemplary case studies are interesting, display sufficient evidence, are complete, and contribute to knowledge.
Here are some tips for conducting qualitative interviews:
- Build rapport by introducing yourself warmly and explaining the purpose of the interview in a clear, concise way.
- Ask open-ended questions to elicit detailed responses. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no.
- Be an active listener. Maintain eye contact, nod to show you're engaged, and avoid multitasking.
- Follow up with probing questions to get more depth, clarity or examples when needed ("Can you tell me more about that?" "What did you mean by...").
- Remain neutral and don't interject your own opinions. Let the interviewee do most of the talking.
- Be
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious texts, and remnants of historical structures.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about the group's behaviors, perspectives and experiences in their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or research methods to develop
Group presentation (ethnographic and historical research)Nordalilah Wahab
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, fragments of pottery or clothing, religious artifacts like pieces of bone from a saint, and historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to get a true representation of behaviors and perspectives rather than altered ones due to the researcher's presence. Rapport building also helps the researcher gain access and cooperation.
3. Triangulation in this context refers to using multiple
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient artifacts, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious icons, and fragments of historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about people's everyday experiences and perspectives within their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or data collection methods to
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing narrative data through methods like interviews and observations to gain a deep understanding of phenomena. It has characteristics like being naturalistic, inductive, and focusing on personal experiences and insights. Qualitative research is useful across many fields for understanding people and contexts.
This document discusses research methodology, specifically qualitative and quantitative approaches, classification of research methods, and descriptive research. It provides details on the key characteristics and processes involved in different types of research approaches. Qualitative research focuses on collecting narrative data through methods like coding, while quantitative research collects numerical data for statistical analysis. Descriptive research aims to describe present conditions, practices, or trends through large-scale surveys and studies. Historical research examines past experiences and sources to help understand current problems. The document outlines the common steps and considerations for conducting different types of research studies.
The document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to answer questions or gain knowledge on a topic. The document then describes different types of research, including applied research, basic research, correlational research, descriptive research, experimental research, exploratory research, grounded theory research, historical research, phenomenological research, qualitative research, and quantitative research. It also discusses the structures of research papers, theses, review papers, and summarizes tools like Mendeley and LaTeX that can assist with research.
This document provides an overview of case study methodology. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event within its real-life context. Case studies can be used to answer "how" and "why" questions, and are appropriate when behaviors cannot be manipulated or contexts are relevant. Information is gathered through various sources like interviews and documents. Steps involved in a case study include planning, developing instruments, collecting data, analyzing data, and disseminating findings. Potential sources of information and common elements of a case study are also outlined.
Cook I
Marriott International, Inc - Al-Ayn
رقم الوظيفة 23013234 التصنيفات Food and Beverage & Culinary الموقع Aloft Al Ain, Al Ain Square, Al Towayya, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates, United Arab Emirates...
21 Jan
Supervisor-Restaurant
Marriott International, Inc - Sharjah
رقم الوظيفة 23013183 التصنيفات Food and Beverage & Culinary الموقع Sheraton Sharjah Beach Resort & Spa, Al Muntazah Street, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates...
21 Jan
This document discusses research methodology and defines key terms and types of research. It begins by defining research as a careful investigation to gain new knowledge. The objectives of research are described as gaining new insights, accurately portraying characteristics, determining frequencies of occurrences, and testing hypotheses. Types of research discussed include descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, and conceptual vs empirical. Descriptive research aims to describe current conditions while analytical evaluates facts. The document also differentiates between research methods, which are techniques used, and methodology, which is the systematic approach.
The document provides an overview of different types of research methods and their definitions. It discusses exploratory, descriptive, correlational, experimental, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, phenomenological, qualitative, and quantitative research. The key points are:
- Research involves systematic investigation to gain new knowledge or validate existing knowledge.
- The different types of research methods each have distinct goals and approaches such as describing characteristics, testing hypotheses, or discovering new theories.
- Research can be classified as qualitative, involving subjective experiences, or quantitative, using statistical techniques to measure phenomena.
This document discusses various aspects of research methodology including the meaning and objectives of research, types of research, variables in research, research process, and importance of methodology. It defines research as a systematic search for knowledge and notes that the main objectives are to discover new facts or verify existing facts. The document outlines different types of research including descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, and conceptual vs empirical. It also explains key aspects of the research process such as selecting a research area, developing research questions/hypotheses, conducting a literature review, preparing a research design, deciding on sampling, and data collection methods. Finally, it discusses the significance of understanding research methodology.
The document discusses the meaning, definitions, objectives, and characteristics of research. It defines research as a careful, systematic study aimed at increasing understanding through objective methods. The main objectives of research are to explore unknown areas, describe situations, diagnose associations between variables, and establish causal relationships. Research should be focused, logical, replicable, generative, and aimed at solving problems. It is most effective when it involves multiple disciplines and stakeholders.
Observational procedures in Research methodologyRidazaman2
Observational procedures refer to systematic methods used by researchers to observe and record behavior, events, or phenomena in a study. There are several types of observation methods, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some key observation methods discussed are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, naturalistic observation, participant observation, longitudinal observation, structured observation, and self-observation. The document provides examples and discusses the benefits and limitations of various observational research techniques.
This document provides an overview of research methodology and key concepts in research. It discusses that research aims to discover unknown knowledge through systematic investigation. The main objectives of research are exploration, description, diagnosis, and hypothesis testing. Business research examines all areas of a business to maximize profits. Research can be qualitative or quantitative. Key types include descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, causal, and exploratory. Research questions define the problem to be examined, while objectives and hypotheses make testable claims. Theories guide research by informing questions and interpretations.
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It begins by defining qualitative research as collecting and analyzing non-numerical data like text, video, or audio to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. Qualitative research aims to gather in-depth insights through words and images rather than numbers. It typically uses an inductive approach to develop theories from field research. Common characteristics of qualitative research include studying meanings in real-world conditions, representing participants' views, examining contextual conditions, and using multiple data sources. The document also outlines ways to ensure trustworthiness and credibility in qualitative research findings.
This document discusses key issues in planning three specific types of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) study designs: cross-sectional designs, case studies, and participatory action research. It provides examples of each design and discusses important considerations for their use including defining research questions, choosing appropriate sampling strategies and data collection methods, developing analytical approaches, and ensuring meaningful participation particularly for participatory action research.
This document discusses key issues to consider when designing different types of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) studies. It covers three specific study designs: cross-sectional, case study, and participatory action research (PAR).
For cross-sectional designs, the document discusses their frequent use in HPSR to explore or describe phenomena at a particular time point. For case studies, it emphasizes the importance of purposefully selecting cases to allow theories to be tested. And for PAR, it highlights the emphasis on collaboration between researchers and subjects as equal partners through participatory cycles of observation, reflection and action.
Observational research designs are those in which the researcher/investigator merely observes and does not carry out any interventions/actions.
to change the result. The three most common types of observational studies are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort (or longitudinal) studies.
In cross-sectional studies, exposure/risk factors and outcomes are determined at a single point in time. You can bid
information on disease prevalence and an overview of likely relationships that can be used to form a hypothesis. Control cases In
studies, participants are selected based on the presence/absence of an outcome and risk factors are identified during the study.
after enrollment of study participants.The relationship between exposure and outcome is reported as an odds ratio. This research; However,
carries a high risk of bias, which should be taken into account when designing the study. Cohort studies are prospective and include participants
were selected based on presence/absence of exposure and results were obtained at the end of the study. This research can deliver The incidence/impact of the disease and the relationship between exposure and outcome are presented as relative risks. They are useful
establish causality.A problem that arises in these studies could be the high fluctuation and dropout of study participants.
Descriptive studies generally describe the magnitude of a problem and characteristics of the population/individuals.
The various types of such studies include
case reports
case series or surveys.
A case report generally describes a patient presenting with an unusual disease, or simultaneous occurrence of more than one condition, or uncommon clinical features in a known disease.
A case series is a collection of similar cases. Such studies, other than providing some advancement to knowledge of a disease, are of limited value. Another method often used in epidemiological health care research is conducting surveys.
Surveys are done during a defined time-period and information on several variables of interest is collected from the target population. They provide estimates of prevalence of the various variables of interest, and their distribution. Such studies could also provide insight into individual opinions and practices. Advantages include ease of conduct and cost efficiency. The disadvantages include low response rates and a variety of biases.
An analytical study tests a hypothesis to determine an association between two or more variables, like causation, risk, or effect. Such studies have two or more study groups for comparison.
The primary focus of this article will be the three most common types of analytical observational studies –
cross-sectional,
case control (also known as retrospective) and
cohort (or longitudinal, also known as prospective) studies.
It may be pertinent to note that the primary objective of most clinical studies is to determine one of the following - burden of disease (prevalence
This document provides an overview of community trials. It discusses that community trials study the effect of interventions on entire communities rather than individuals. An example is given of a trial that studied the effect of adding fluoride to water supplies to prevent dental decay across two towns. Key aspects of community trials discussed include involving communities, using mass media, screening and education programs, and measuring outcomes. Advantages are that it can easily change social environments and test interventions in natural settings, while disadvantages include potential for selection bias. Ethical considerations around informed consent are also outlined.
A case study is an in-depth examination of a particular situation or small group that aims to describe and explain phenomena of interest. Case studies allow researchers to closely examine data within a specific context, study contemporary real-life situations, and test theoretical models in real-world scenarios. Case studies are useful for improving learning experiences as they require participation and application of skills. Exemplary case studies are interesting, display sufficient evidence, are complete, and contribute to knowledge.
Here are some tips for conducting qualitative interviews:
- Build rapport by introducing yourself warmly and explaining the purpose of the interview in a clear, concise way.
- Ask open-ended questions to elicit detailed responses. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no.
- Be an active listener. Maintain eye contact, nod to show you're engaged, and avoid multitasking.
- Follow up with probing questions to get more depth, clarity or examples when needed ("Can you tell me more about that?" "What did you mean by...").
- Remain neutral and don't interject your own opinions. Let the interviewee do most of the talking.
- Be
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious texts, and remnants of historical structures.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about the group's behaviors, perspectives and experiences in their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or research methods to develop
Group presentation (ethnographic and historical research)Nordalilah Wahab
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, fragments of pottery or clothing, religious artifacts like pieces of bone from a saint, and historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to get a true representation of behaviors and perspectives rather than altered ones due to the researcher's presence. Rapport building also helps the researcher gain access and cooperation.
3. Triangulation in this context refers to using multiple
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient artifacts, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious icons, and fragments of historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about people's everyday experiences and perspectives within their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or data collection methods to
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing narrative data through methods like interviews and observations to gain a deep understanding of phenomena. It has characteristics like being naturalistic, inductive, and focusing on personal experiences and insights. Qualitative research is useful across many fields for understanding people and contexts.
This document discusses research methodology, specifically qualitative and quantitative approaches, classification of research methods, and descriptive research. It provides details on the key characteristics and processes involved in different types of research approaches. Qualitative research focuses on collecting narrative data through methods like coding, while quantitative research collects numerical data for statistical analysis. Descriptive research aims to describe present conditions, practices, or trends through large-scale surveys and studies. Historical research examines past experiences and sources to help understand current problems. The document outlines the common steps and considerations for conducting different types of research studies.
The document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to answer questions or gain knowledge on a topic. The document then describes different types of research, including applied research, basic research, correlational research, descriptive research, experimental research, exploratory research, grounded theory research, historical research, phenomenological research, qualitative research, and quantitative research. It also discusses the structures of research papers, theses, review papers, and summarizes tools like Mendeley and LaTeX that can assist with research.
This document provides an overview of case study methodology. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event within its real-life context. Case studies can be used to answer "how" and "why" questions, and are appropriate when behaviors cannot be manipulated or contexts are relevant. Information is gathered through various sources like interviews and documents. Steps involved in a case study include planning, developing instruments, collecting data, analyzing data, and disseminating findings. Potential sources of information and common elements of a case study are also outlined.
Cook I
Marriott International, Inc - Al-Ayn
رقم الوظيفة 23013234 التصنيفات Food and Beverage & Culinary الموقع Aloft Al Ain, Al Ain Square, Al Towayya, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates, United Arab Emirates...
21 Jan
Supervisor-Restaurant
Marriott International, Inc - Sharjah
رقم الوظيفة 23013183 التصنيفات Food and Beverage & Culinary الموقع Sheraton Sharjah Beach Resort & Spa, Al Muntazah Street, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates...
21 Jan
This document discusses research methodology and defines key terms and types of research. It begins by defining research as a careful investigation to gain new knowledge. The objectives of research are described as gaining new insights, accurately portraying characteristics, determining frequencies of occurrences, and testing hypotheses. Types of research discussed include descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, and conceptual vs empirical. Descriptive research aims to describe current conditions while analytical evaluates facts. The document also differentiates between research methods, which are techniques used, and methodology, which is the systematic approach.
The document provides an overview of different types of research methods and their definitions. It discusses exploratory, descriptive, correlational, experimental, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, phenomenological, qualitative, and quantitative research. The key points are:
- Research involves systematic investigation to gain new knowledge or validate existing knowledge.
- The different types of research methods each have distinct goals and approaches such as describing characteristics, testing hypotheses, or discovering new theories.
- Research can be classified as qualitative, involving subjective experiences, or quantitative, using statistical techniques to measure phenomena.
This document discusses various aspects of research methodology including the meaning and objectives of research, types of research, variables in research, research process, and importance of methodology. It defines research as a systematic search for knowledge and notes that the main objectives are to discover new facts or verify existing facts. The document outlines different types of research including descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, and conceptual vs empirical. It also explains key aspects of the research process such as selecting a research area, developing research questions/hypotheses, conducting a literature review, preparing a research design, deciding on sampling, and data collection methods. Finally, it discusses the significance of understanding research methodology.
The document discusses the meaning, definitions, objectives, and characteristics of research. It defines research as a careful, systematic study aimed at increasing understanding through objective methods. The main objectives of research are to explore unknown areas, describe situations, diagnose associations between variables, and establish causal relationships. Research should be focused, logical, replicable, generative, and aimed at solving problems. It is most effective when it involves multiple disciplines and stakeholders.
Observational procedures in Research methodologyRidazaman2
Observational procedures refer to systematic methods used by researchers to observe and record behavior, events, or phenomena in a study. There are several types of observation methods, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some key observation methods discussed are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, cohort studies, naturalistic observation, participant observation, longitudinal observation, structured observation, and self-observation. The document provides examples and discusses the benefits and limitations of various observational research techniques.
This document provides an overview of research methodology and key concepts in research. It discusses that research aims to discover unknown knowledge through systematic investigation. The main objectives of research are exploration, description, diagnosis, and hypothesis testing. Business research examines all areas of a business to maximize profits. Research can be qualitative or quantitative. Key types include descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, causal, and exploratory. Research questions define the problem to be examined, while objectives and hypotheses make testable claims. Theories guide research by informing questions and interpretations.
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It begins by defining qualitative research as collecting and analyzing non-numerical data like text, video, or audio to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. Qualitative research aims to gather in-depth insights through words and images rather than numbers. It typically uses an inductive approach to develop theories from field research. Common characteristics of qualitative research include studying meanings in real-world conditions, representing participants' views, examining contextual conditions, and using multiple data sources. The document also outlines ways to ensure trustworthiness and credibility in qualitative research findings.
This document discusses key issues in planning three specific types of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) study designs: cross-sectional designs, case studies, and participatory action research. It provides examples of each design and discusses important considerations for their use including defining research questions, choosing appropriate sampling strategies and data collection methods, developing analytical approaches, and ensuring meaningful participation particularly for participatory action research.
This document discusses key issues to consider when designing different types of Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) studies. It covers three specific study designs: cross-sectional, case study, and participatory action research (PAR).
For cross-sectional designs, the document discusses their frequent use in HPSR to explore or describe phenomena at a particular time point. For case studies, it emphasizes the importance of purposefully selecting cases to allow theories to be tested. And for PAR, it highlights the emphasis on collaboration between researchers and subjects as equal partners through participatory cycles of observation, reflection and action.
Observational research designs are those in which the researcher/investigator merely observes and does not carry out any interventions/actions.
to change the result. The three most common types of observational studies are cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort (or longitudinal) studies.
In cross-sectional studies, exposure/risk factors and outcomes are determined at a single point in time. You can bid
information on disease prevalence and an overview of likely relationships that can be used to form a hypothesis. Control cases In
studies, participants are selected based on the presence/absence of an outcome and risk factors are identified during the study.
after enrollment of study participants.The relationship between exposure and outcome is reported as an odds ratio. This research; However,
carries a high risk of bias, which should be taken into account when designing the study. Cohort studies are prospective and include participants
were selected based on presence/absence of exposure and results were obtained at the end of the study. This research can deliver The incidence/impact of the disease and the relationship between exposure and outcome are presented as relative risks. They are useful
establish causality.A problem that arises in these studies could be the high fluctuation and dropout of study participants.
Descriptive studies generally describe the magnitude of a problem and characteristics of the population/individuals.
The various types of such studies include
case reports
case series or surveys.
A case report generally describes a patient presenting with an unusual disease, or simultaneous occurrence of more than one condition, or uncommon clinical features in a known disease.
A case series is a collection of similar cases. Such studies, other than providing some advancement to knowledge of a disease, are of limited value. Another method often used in epidemiological health care research is conducting surveys.
Surveys are done during a defined time-period and information on several variables of interest is collected from the target population. They provide estimates of prevalence of the various variables of interest, and their distribution. Such studies could also provide insight into individual opinions and practices. Advantages include ease of conduct and cost efficiency. The disadvantages include low response rates and a variety of biases.
An analytical study tests a hypothesis to determine an association between two or more variables, like causation, risk, or effect. Such studies have two or more study groups for comparison.
The primary focus of this article will be the three most common types of analytical observational studies –
cross-sectional,
case control (also known as retrospective) and
cohort (or longitudinal, also known as prospective) studies.
It may be pertinent to note that the primary objective of most clinical studies is to determine one of the following - burden of disease (prevalence
This document provides an overview of community trials. It discusses that community trials study the effect of interventions on entire communities rather than individuals. An example is given of a trial that studied the effect of adding fluoride to water supplies to prevent dental decay across two towns. Key aspects of community trials discussed include involving communities, using mass media, screening and education programs, and measuring outcomes. Advantages are that it can easily change social environments and test interventions in natural settings, while disadvantages include potential for selection bias. Ethical considerations around informed consent are also outlined.
This document discusses the planning process for clinical trials. It covers several key aspects of planning including:
1) Defining the trial objectives and research questions;
2) Consulting with local stakeholders and ensuring the research is acceptable and a priority;
3) Considering the disease burden and public health importance of the condition under study.
The planning process involves anticipating challenges and ethical issues that may arise, as well as estimating the resources and duration needed to complete the trial. Thorough planning from the early stages helps ensure a successful trial.
Field trials evaluate interventions outside of clinical settings, in participants' normal environments. They have less stringent inclusion/exclusion criteria than clinical trials. Randomization often occurs at the group level rather than individual level. Successful field trials require engaging the community at all stages of planning and execution. Interventions can be preventive, like vaccines or nutrition, or therapeutic, like treating infectious diseases. Both public health and clinical measures are considered interventions if they aim to improve human health.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- INTERVENTIONAL STUDY DESIGNS: clinical trials ppt.pptxKrishnaveniManubolu
The document discusses various clinical trial study designs including randomized controlled trials, cross-over trials, non-randomized trials, historically controlled trials, and factorial trials. It provides examples of when each design would be suitable and outlines their advantages and disadvantages. Key points covered include randomizing subjects to experimental and control groups in randomized controlled trials, using washout periods in cross-over trials, and testing multiple interventions simultaneously in factorial trials.
This document discusses the components and purpose of a medical prescription. It defines a prescription as a written order from a medical practitioner to a pharmacist with instructions for preparing and dispensing a medication for a patient. The key parts of a prescription are identified as: the date, patient information, superscription, inscription, subscription, signatura, renewal instructions, and prescriber signature. Each part serves an important role in properly identifying the patient, medication, dosing instructions, and authenticating the prescription.
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Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
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1. CASE STUDIES
Dr. M. Krishnaveni
Associate professor
Narayana pharmacy college, Nellore
2. • A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study,
nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and
causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in various fields, including
psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.
• The purpose of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or
group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately,
case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize
results to a larger population.
• While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format
similar to other types of psychology writing.
• If you are writing a case study, it is important to follow the rules of APA format.
3. Benefits and Limitations
• A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and
cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.
• Pros
• One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that
are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:1
• Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information
• Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual cases
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research
• Cons
• On the negative side, a case study:
• Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• May not be scientifically rigorous
• Can lead to bias
4. What is a case study?
• A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-
depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life
context.
• It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide
variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences.
• A case study can be defined in a variety of ways, the central tenet
being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in
its natural context.
• It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design;
this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised
controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over
and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.
5. Definition of case study
• Yin defines case study as an empirical inquiry which investigates a
phenomenon in its real-life context. In a case study research, multiple
methods of data collection are used, as it involves an in-depth study of a
phenomenon. It must be noted, as highlighted by Yin, a case study is not a
method of data collection, rather is a research strategy or design to study a
social unit.
• Creswell makes a lucid and comprehensive definition of case study
strategy.
• Case Studies are a qualitative design in which the researcher explores in
depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. The
case(s) are bound by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained
period of time.
6. key attributes of the case study
methodology
• The following key attributes of the case study methodology can be underlined.
• 1. Case study is a research strategy, and not just a method/technique/process of data
collection.
• 2. A case study involves a detailed study of the concerned unit of analysis within its
natural setting. A de-contextualised study has no relevance in a case study research.
• 3. Since an in-depth study is conducted, a case study research allows the researcher
the leeway to use any method of data collection which suits their purpose (provided
the method is feasible and ethical). Generally, for a sound, unadulterated and
unbiased1 study of the phenomenon under investigation, several techniques of data
collection are used such questionnaire, survey, in-depth interview, participant/non-
participant observation and the study of documents (whether of books, archival
manuscript or audio-visual records), conversations in natural settings, signs,
physical artefacts and so on.
7. Types of case study
• a case study can be:
• 1. Descriptive. In a descriptive case study, the purpose is to ‘describe’ a
phenomenon in detail in its real-world context. It is used extensively in
sociology and anthropology.
• Street Corner Society (1943/1999) by William Whyte is considered a
classic example of descriptive case study. It describes the emergent
subculture in an Italian slum in an urban neighbourhood in the United
States, called the Cornerville district (a pseudonym). The study describes in
detail key phenomena such as the inter-subjectivity and interpersonal
relations among the residents of the slum, the career advancement of the
lower income youth and their ability (or inability) to break free from the
neighbourhood ties.
• 2. Explanatory. The study here looks for causal factors to explain a
particular phenomenon. The primary focus of such a case study is to
explain ‘why’ and ‘how’ certain conditions come into being, that is, why
certain sequence of events occur or do not occur.
• 3. Exploratory. The purpose here is to study a phenomenon with the
intention of ‘exploring’ or identifying fresh research questions which can
be used in subsequent research studies in an extensive way.
8. Hawthrone experiment
• One of the most well-known exploratory case studies is the one carried out by Elton
Mayo at the Hawthrone plant of the Western Electric Company at Chicago between
1927 and 1932.
• This case study is also known as the Hawthrone experiment. The experiment was
carried out by Mayo in response to the then hugely popular theory of scientific
management spelt out by Taylor in his classic The Principles of Scientific
Management (1911).
• Mayo’s exploratory case study at Hawthrone plant generated a number of
hypotheses, which got tested in several other case studies, and led to the
development of the famous ‘human relations school’ is management studies.
9. • Longitudinal Case Study
• Since the article mentions longitudinal study just above, it is
desirable to discuss it here itself.
• Bryman (2008) says that case study research generally involves a
longitudinal element. A longitudinal study entails studying the same
phenomenon on two or more occasions in order to discern any
perceptible change which has occurred in the phenomenon under
investigation over the period of time (ibid., p. 695).
• Bryman (ibid., pp. 57–58) posits that in a case study, a longitudinal
study can be done in the following ways,
• (a) the researcher many conduct interviews with the subjects over a
lengthy period, which will help her to find out any change in the unit
under analysis over such period of the interview,
• (b) a researcher may bring longitudinal element into her study by
immersing herself into archival data and records, or previous
interviews carried out by some other researcher and
• (c) the researcher may come back to the case being studied at a later
stage to look for trends and changes.
10. • A classic example of longitudinal case study is the study of Middletown (a
mid-sized city in Midwestern United States) by Lynd and Lynd (1957),
once in mid-1920s and again in mid-1930s.
• Though it is basically a descriptive case study, the primary focus of the
authors was the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy,
which occurred in most mid-sized American cities in the 1920s.
• The authors were interested in studying the changes Middletown was
witnessing due to industrialisation.
• The authors stayed there in the city for around eighteen months in the mid-
1920s, immersing themselves into the social life of the city as participant
observers, and produced a comprehensive and detailed study of the cultural
life of Middletown and its transitioning under the impact of
industrialisation.
• The study was so much appreciated and well received that the authors
returned to Middletown again in the mid-1930s to study further changes in
the socio-cultural life of the city, eventually producing a follow-up book of
equal commendation, named Middletown in Transition (1965) (Yin, 2004,
pp. 13–32).
11. Stake's case study approach
• Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to
scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study:
• Intrinsic
• instrumental and
• Collective
• An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique
phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon,
which distinguishes it from all others.
• In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may
be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon.
• The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or
sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular
issue.
12. • an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment
of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma
research studies
• a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the
issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more
generally, generating a number of the findings that are
potentially transferable to other disease contexts
• collective case study designs to study the introduction of
workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the
implementation of electronic health records into hospitals,
and to understand the ways in which healthcare students
learn about patient safety considerations.
13. Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research
Approach Characteristics Criticisms
Critical
Involves questioning one's own assumptions taking
into account the wider political and social
environment.
It can possibly neglect other factors by
focussing only on power relationships
and may give the researcher a position
that is too privileged.
Interprets the limiting conditions in relation to power
and control that are thought to influence behaviour.
Interpretativ
e
Involves understanding meanings/contexts and
processes as perceived from different perspectives,
trying to understand individual and shared social
meanings. Focus is on theory building.
Often difficult to explain unintended
consequences and for neglecting
surrounding historical contexts
Positivist
Involves establishing which variables one wishes to
study in advance and seeing whether they fit in with
the findings. Focus is often on testing and refining
theory on the basis of case study findings.
It does not take into account the role of
the researcher in influencing findings.
14. Conducting a case study in eight
steps
• defining the case
• selecting the case(s)
• collecting and analysing the data
• interpreting data and
• reporting the findings.
15. Defining the case
• Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing
literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and
setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining
the case.
• Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which
clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its
scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or
geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of
evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and
analysis.
• A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate
knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical
contexts and behaviours;
• using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation
of,
• for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed
16. • For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health
records in English hospitals, we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that
were receiving the new technology.
• Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However,
if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational
dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently
as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses).
• The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to
define.
• Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and
adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such
judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including
the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the
gathered data and the resources available to the research team.
•
17. Selecting the case(s)
• The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very
important one that merits some reflection.
• In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits. The
case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but
because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the
researchers.
• This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of
minority ethnic participants into asthma research as our earlier work
had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with
asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity.
• In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.
studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore
how dementia had impacted on their understanding of
home, their everyday life and their relationships.
18. • For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case
can work well. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the
particular case which is chosen is of less importance than
selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an
issue or phenomenon.
• For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors'
responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook
an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had
a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one
NHS acute hospital trust. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical"
case may however prove even more informative, potentially
enabling the researcher to identify causal processes,
generate hypotheses and develop theory.
19. • In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases
are carefully selected.
• This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to
be made across several cases and/or replication.
Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be
generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or
to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or
even a third case (i.e. replication logic).
• Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e.
predicting similar results) if the theory is
straightforward and five or more if the theory is more
subtle.
20. • The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group
of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the
chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the
researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work
cooperatively with them.
• Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry
if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s).
• Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being
influenced by key stakeholders.
• For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the
implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems was heavily
influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was
responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology
(NPfIT).
• This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a
competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record
systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.
21. Collecting the data
• In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study
approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence,
using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of
routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative
techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations).
• The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated
as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to
which the method is appropriate to answer the research question).
• An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should
lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different
angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon .
• Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to
investigate the impact of a cancer care programme.
• Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and
five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any
statistically significant results.
• Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into
potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as
greater, perceived patient involvement in care.
22. Analysing, interpreting and
reporting case studies
• Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically
disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with
quantitative) is far from straightforward.
• Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are
integral to the process of analysis.
• In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the
individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases.
• Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where
relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes.
• Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both
derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily
retrieved at a later stage.
• An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied
systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data
analysis software package.
23. Frame work approach
• The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five
stages
• familiarisation;
• identifying a thematic framework;
• indexing;
• charting; mapping and interpretation),
• to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as
was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma
research .
• Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating
different sources of data and examining emerging themes.
• For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the
connections between different elements - technology; people; and the
organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the
introduction of electronic health record systems .
• Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an
evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the
importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through
which students learn .
24. Case study findings - implications
• Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and
theory testing.
• They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case
and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical)
generalisation beyond the particular cases studied. These theoretical lenses
should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be
"forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.
• When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough
contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and
how the conclusions were reached.
• In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings
from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases.
• Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and
individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate
codes or withholding descriptors. I
25. References
• Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A. et al. The case study approach. BMC Med
Res Methodol 11, 100 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100
• Yin RK: Case study research, design and method. 2009, London: Sage Publications
Ltd., 4
• Keen J, Packwood T: Qualitative research; case study evaluation. BMJ. 1995, 311:
444-446.
• Sheikh A, Halani L, Bhopal R, Netuveli G, Partridge M, Car J, et al: Facilitating the
Recruitment of Minority Ethnic People into Research: Qualitative Case Study of
South Asians and Asthma. PLoS Med. 2009, 6 (10): 1-11.
• Pinnock H, Huby G, Powell A, Kielmann T, Price D, Williams S, et al: The process
of planning, development and implementation of a General Practitioner with a
Special Interest service in Primary Care Organisations in England and Wales: a
comparative prospective case study. Report for the National Co-ordinating Centre
for NHS Service Delivery and Organisation R&D (NCCSDO). 2008,
• Robertson A, Cresswell K, Takian A, Petrakaki D, Crowe S, Cornford T, et al:
Prospective evaluation of the implementation and adoption of NHS Connecting for
Health's national electronic health record in secondary care in England: interim
findings. BMJ. 2010, 41: c4564-