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Final Dissertation Boydstun_7_11_16

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Kelli Boydstun

This dissertation examined how participation in a GEAR-Up college readiness program influenced the postsecondary decisions of Hispanic students in a rural school district in Texas. The study used a qualitative case study design to explore how the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital through student and staff interviews and questionnaires. The results identified practices that enhanced family and school social capital, with the most prevalent being financial aid assistance provided to parents and college and career counseling for students. The findings provide insights into how college readiness programs can support postsecondary enrollment for rural Hispanic youth.

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Investigating GEAR-Up College Readiness Program's Influence on Postsecondary Decisions of Rural Hispanic Youth Submitted by Kelli Dawn Boydstun A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctorate of Education Grand Canyon University Phoenix, Arizona June 29, 2016
© by Kelli Dawn Boydstun, 2016 All rights reserved.
Abstract This qualitative case study investigated how the GEAR-Up college readiness program influenced the postsecondary decisions of Hispanic students who participated in the GEAR-Up program for the recommended six-year period in a rural school district in Texas. It was not known how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program at a rural school facilitated social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how students and staff members in a rural school perceived that long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital and influenced postsecondary decisions of Hispanic students. The theoretical foundation for this study was social capital theory. The participants in the study included 21 former students and five staff members who participated in the program from 2008-2013. The findings confirmed three practices for enhancing family social capital. The most prevalent practice for enhancing family social capital was financial aid assistance. Financial aid assistance encompassed guiding the parents through the process of applying for financial aid and scholarships. The remaining two practices found to enhance family social capital were forming relationships with parents and formal contact with parents. Five practices were confirmed as enhancing school social capital. The most prevalent practice for enhancing school social capital was college and career counseling. The remaining four practices confirmed as enhancing school social capital conducive for enrollment in postsecondary education were (in order of prevalence in the data): assistance filling out college applications, tutoring, sponsoring trips, and academic advising. Keywords: Social capital, postsecondary, rural, Hispanic students, GEAR-Up
vi vi Dedication I dedicate this work and want to express my deep gratitude to my parents, Ted and Ninnette Boydstun. You have always believed in me until I could believe in me again. Thank you for being who you are: resilient, hard-working, steadfast, enduring, faithful to the end. I learned those things from you, and could not have accomplished this without what I learned from watching you live life. To my boys, Chase and Clay Burgess, you continue to be the reason I get up in the morning, and I have learned so much about life from you. I love you both so much. To Mitch and Stephanie and Renae and Marc, you have all encouraged me, prayed for me, offered your home as a quiet place to write and recover from life, and you have always believed in me. I am so thankful to have you as family. Your support has kept me going. To my Uncle Moran and Aunt Caroline. Uncle Moran, you told me to finish this. So I did. You also offered your home, your encouragement, and your expectation that drove my desire to continue on with this work. To my cousin Beth, your contagious enthusiasm always inspires me. To my grandparents including Granny Pounds, who gave to me her passion for writing and teaching, my Gemaw who was an example of who I always wanted to be, and my Aunt Erma, who always asked me about what I was reading. Finally, to the many students I have had the privilege to work with in planning for your future. I am grateful for each and every one as you have each one added to the passion that inspired me to pursue a doctorate in effective schools.
vii vii Acknowledgments To begin, I would like to acknowledge my heavenly Father. It is only by His grace, and my Savior, Jesus Christ that I have been held together, empowered, and protected for the writing of this work to take place. I do not yet know the plan and purpose from here. But I know I can trust, that You will be faithful to complete what You start. I would also like to acknowledge my committee, Dr. Kristine Quade, Dr. David Cipra, and Dr. John Gustafson. Your guidance, expertise, and encouragement have been invaluable in this process. I am so fortunate to have been blessed with a dissertation chair and committee devoted to keen and thorough feedback. This work would not have reached completion without your direction. I would also like to acknowledge my niece, Cassidy Boydstun, and my friend, Walter Ziegler, who helped with the mailing of 139 questionnaires. I am grateful for friends that have endured and understood when I was unavailable while focusing on this work. I am fortunate to work with an amazing team of administrators and staff members at Hereford ISD as well as the former GEAR-Up students and staff members who participated in the study specifically: Richard Sauceda for being an awesome high school principal and always believing in me, Bena Glasscock, superior lead counselor, Elda Lucio, Carolene Fair, Stacy Andrews, counseling peers who have supported me through so much and are always willing to do more than their share of the work. I am grateful for Kate Baca, Karen Esquivel, and Linda Cumpton, former GEAR-Up staff that contributed invaluable information. I am indebted to each and every one of you and could not have done this without having people like you in my life.
viii viii Table of Contents Table of Contents............................................................................................................. viii   List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xvii   List of Figures................................................................................................................... xx   Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study................................................................................... 1   Introduction................................................................................................................... 1   Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 3   Problem Statement........................................................................................................ 6   Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................... 8   Research Questions..................................................................................................... 10   Advancing Scientific Knowledge ............................................................................... 12   Significance of the Study............................................................................................ 13   Rationale for Methodology......................................................................................... 14   Nature of the Research Design for the Study.............................................................. 16   Definition of Terms..................................................................................................... 21   Achievement gap. ..................................................................................... 21   Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ................................................................... 25   Assumptions....................................................................................................... 25   Delimitations and limitations............................................................................. 26   Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study....................................... 26   Chapter 2: Literature Review............................................................................................ 28   Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ..................................... 28   Orientation to the literature................................................................................ 28   Description of literature review process. ........................................................... 29  
ix ix Background to the problem................................................................................ 30   Theoretical Foundations.............................................................................................. 40   Social capital theory........................................................................................... 40   Seminal sources for social capital theory.................................................. 40   Concepts in social capital theory. ............................................................. 41   Historical literature and development of social capital theory. ................ 44   James Coleman and social capital theory. ................................................ 44   Robert Putnam and social capital theory. ................................................. 45   Current literature and social capital theory............................................... 47   Research questions and social capital theory............................................ 50   Review of the Literature ............................................................................................. 54   Effects of college readiness programs. .............................................................. 55   Effects of targeted college readiness programs. ....................................... 62   Effects of school-wide college readiness programs.................................. 66   Louisiana Gear-Up.................................................................................... 68   Summary: Effects of current college readiness programs. ................................ 71   Factors that led to postsecondary education. ..................................................... 74   Rigorous academic curriculum choices in high school............................. 75   College ready scores on standardized tests............................................... 77   Positive relationships. ............................................................................... 79   Enrollment in postsecondary education.................................................... 81   Academic preparation. .............................................................................. 86   Early expectation, intervention, and application....................................... 89   Summary: Factors that led to postsecondary education..................................... 92   Empirical study #1: Bryan et al. (2012).................................................... 94  
x - x Empirical study #3: Hill (2008). ............................................................... 95   Empirical study #4: Wolniak & Engberg (2010)...................................... 98   Summary: The importance of school context. ................................................... 99   Methodology............................................................................................................. 100   Instrumentation ......................................................................................................... 102   Summary................................................................................................................... 104   Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................. 106   Introduction............................................................................................................... 106   Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 110   Research Questions................................................................................................... 110   Research Methodology ............................................................................................. 116   Research Design........................................................................................................ 117   Population and Sample Selection.............................................................................. 123   Sources of Data......................................................................................................... 128   Questionnaires.................................................................................................. 128   Audio recorded interviews............................................................................... 129   Documents. ...................................................................................................... 130   Validity ..................................................................................................................... 131   Reliability.................................................................................................................. 133   Data Collection and Management............................................................................. 134   Sample selection, recruitment, and assignment to groups. .............................. 134   Informed consent and rights of participants..................................................... 136   Questionnaires.................................................................................................. 137   Document analysis. .......................................................................................... 138   Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 140  
xi xi Research questions and data collection............................................................ 140   Thematic analysis and coding process............................................................. 141   Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................. 146   Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................... 147   Summary................................................................................................................... 148   Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results............................................................................. 150   Introduction............................................................................................................... 150   Descriptive Data........................................................................................................ 153   Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 159   Staff participant data analysis. ......................................................................... 162   Staff questionnaire analysis. ................................................................... 162   Staff interview analysis........................................................................... 164   Student participant data analysis...................................................................... 169   Student questionnaire data analysis. ....................................................... 169   Student interview data analysis............................................................... 173   Incorporating NVivo software. ............................................................... 177   Themes coded for RQ 1. .................................................................................. 178   GPFPC: Formal parent contact. .............................................................. 179   GPFR: Forming relationships with parents............................................. 179   PFME: Mother’s expectation for her child to attend college.................. 180   PFPI: Parental involvement with school................................................. 180   Themes coded for RQ 2. .................................................................................. 180   GPCA: Assistance filling out college applications................................. 180   GPCC: College and career counseling.................................................... 181   GPPC: Personal counseling. ................................................................... 181  
xii xii GPCSR: Counselor to student ratio. ....................................................... 181   GPCS: Assisting with course selection................................................... 182   GPGS: Goal setting................................................................................. 182   GPT: Tutoring......................................................................................... 182   GPST: Sponsoring trips. ......................................................................... 183   GPTP: Test preparation for state testing and college entrance exams.... 183   PFR: Relationships with teachers, coaches, and counselors................... 183   PFIC: Interactions with college representatives. .................................... 184   PFAC: Access to information about college such as: financial aid, college publications, and websites. ................................................................................. 184   PFAT: Academic and test preparation.................................................... 184   Document analysis. .......................................................................................... 191   Entry/Withdrawal and demographic records. ......................................... 193   Transcripts and test score rosters. ........................................................... 193   Graduation plan....................................................................................... 195   TAKS (Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills) exit level scores.. 196   ACT (American College Testing) Scores............................................... 197   Taking rigorous coursework. .................................................................. 197   Parent sign-in sheets......................................................................................... 198   FAFSA website................................................................................................ 198   National GEAR-Up evaluations....................................................................... 199   NCCEP AT&T Foundation National Evaluation Project (NCCEP, 2006)...... 200   ACT (2007) Using explore and plan data to evaluate GEAR-Up programs. ............................................................................................................................. 201   Early outcomes of the GEAR-Up program (Standing et al., 2008)........ 202   Triangulation of data........................................................................................ 204  
xiii xiii Limitations in Data Analysis .................................................................................... 209   Results....................................................................................................................... 213   Overview of results. ......................................................................................... 214   Overview: Social capital process features. ............................................. 214   Overview: Questionnaire results............................................................. 215   Overview: Interview results.................................................................... 217   Overview: Document results................................................................... 219   Overview: Findings................................................................................. 221   Research Question 1. ................................................................................................ 222   Practice 1: Financial aid assistance.................................................................. 223   Practice 1: Interview evidence................................................................ 223   Practice 1: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 224   Practice 1: Document evidence............................................................... 226   Practice 2: Forming relationships with parents................................................ 227   Practice 2: Interview evidence................................................................ 227   Practice 2: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 228   Practice 2: Document evidence............................................................... 228   Practice 3: Formal contact with parents........................................................... 229   Practice 1: College and career counseling. ...................................................... 234   Practice 1: Interview evidence................................................................ 234   Practice 1: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 235   Practice 1: Document evidence............................................................... 238   Practice 2: Assistance filling out college applications..................................... 242   Practice 2: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 243   Practice 2: Document evidence............................................................... 245  
xiv xiv Practice 3 Tutoring........................................................................................... 246   Practice 3: Interview evidence................................................................ 247   Practice 3: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 248   Practice 3: Document evidence............................................................... 250   Practice 4 Sponsoring trips. ............................................................................. 251   Practice 4: Interview evidence................................................................ 251   Practice 4: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 252   Practice 4: Document evidence............................................................... 254   Practice 5: academic advising.......................................................................... 254   Practice 5: Interview evidence. ........................................................................ 255   Practice 5: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 258   Practice 5: Document evidence............................................................... 261   GPCSR/counselor to student ratio and personal relationships......................... 263   GPCSR: Interview evidence. .................................................................. 265   GPCSR Questionnaire evidence. ............................................................ 266   Summary................................................................................................................... 267   Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations........................................... 273   Introduction............................................................................................................... 273   Summary of the Study .............................................................................................. 275   Summary of Findings and Conclusion...................................................................... 277   Overview: Social capital process features. ...................................................... 277   Overview: Results from each data source........................................................ 278   Research question 1. ........................................................................................ 279   Financial aid assistance........................................................................... 279   Forming relationships with parents......................................................... 280  
xv xv Formal contact with parents.................................................................... 281   Conclusions- RQ 1........................................................................................... 282   Research Question 2......................................................................................... 283   College and career counseling. ............................................................... 283   Assistance filling out college applications.............................................. 284   Tutoring................................................................................................... 286   Sponsoring trips. ..................................................................................... 287   Academic advising.................................................................................. 288   Conclusions- RQ2............................................................................................ 290   Implications............................................................................................................... 294   Theoretical implications................................................................................... 294   Practical implications....................................................................................... 298   Future implications. ......................................................................................... 300   Strengths and Weaknesses ........................................................................................ 304   Recommendations..................................................................................................... 307   Recommendations for future research. ............................................................ 307   Recommendation for future research 1................................................... 307   Recommendation for future research 2................................................... 308   Recommendation for future research 3................................................... 309   Recommendation for future research 4................................................... 309   Recommendations for future practice.............................................................. 310   Recommendation for future practice 1. .................................................. 310   Recommendation for future practice 2. .................................................. 311   References....................................................................................................................... 313   Appendix A IRB Approval Letter.................................................................................. 333  
xvi xvi Appendix B Student Questionnaire GEAR-Up College Readiness and Social Capital 335   Appendix C Questionnaire for Staff Members .............................................................. 343   Appendix D Case Study Interview Protocol.................................................................. 347   Appendix E Interview Protocol for Staff Members...................................................... 350   Appendix F Site Permission to Conduct Research ....................................................... 353   Appendix G. Informed Consent..................................................................................... 355   Appendix H. Recruitment Script................................................................................... 358   Appendix I. Example Student Questionnaire Analysis. Screen Shots of Excel Spreadsheet ......................................................................................................... 360   Appendix J Staff Questionnaire Analysis Excel Spreadsheet. Screenshot Sample..... 361   Appendix K. GEAR-Up Participant Data Sheet............................................................ 362   Appendix L Non-Participant Data Sheet ....................................................................... 363   Appendix M RQ 1 Matrix for GEAR-Up Practice Codes and Process Feature Code... 364   Appendix N Using cut and paste to explore for meaning in response relationships .... 365   Appendix O Initial Coding Table With Examples......................................................... 366   Appendix P Coding Instances for Social Capital Process Features................................ 369   Appendix Q Coding Instances for RQ 1 Practice 1 ....................................................... 371   Appendix R Coding Instances for RQ 1 Practice 2 ....................................................... 373   Appendix S Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 1........................................................ 376   Appendix T Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 2........................................................ 378   Appendix U Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 3 ....................................................... 380   Appendix V Examples of Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 4.................................. 382   Appendix W Examples of Coded Data for RQ 2 Practice 5.......................................... 385   Appendix X Examples for the Code GPCSR ............................................................... 387  
xvii List of Tables Table 1. Data Collection and Research Instruments..................................................... 115   Table 2. Student Participant Demographic Characteristics ........................................... 155   Table 3. Staff Participant Characteristics....................................................................... 156   Table 4. Staff Participant Questionnaires: Summary of Case Record.......................... 157   Table 5. Student Participant Questionnaires: Summary of Case Record...................... 157   Table 6. Student Interviews: Summary of Case Record............................................... 158   Table 7. Staff Interviews: Summary of Case Record ................................................... 158   Table 8. Document Evidence: Summary of Case Record............................................ 159   Table 9. Initial Coding Table........................................................................................ 168   Table 10. Student Questionnaire Analysis: Explorations and Examples of Reflective Notes and Coding.................................................................................................... 173   Table 11. Student Interview Evidence with Initial Coding........................................... 176   Table 12. Parent Node- EF- GEAR-Up Practices Enhancing Family Social Capital (RQ 1) ............................................................................................................................. 185   Table 13. Parent Node-- EF-- Social Capital Process Features Enhancing Family Social Capital (RQ 1)......................................................................................................... 186   Table 14. Parent Node-- ES-- GEAR-UP Practices Enhancing School Social Capital (RQ 2) ..................................................................................................................... 187   Table 15. Parent Node-- ES-- Social Capital Process Features Enhancing School Social Capital..................................................................................................................... 188   Table 16. Emerging Themes RQ 1: GEAR-Up Practices............................................. 189   Table 17. Emerging Themes RQ 1: Social Capital Process Features........................... 189   Table 18. Emerging Themes (RQ 2): GEAR-Up Practices .......................................... 190   Table 19. Emerging Themes (RQ 2). Social Capital Process Features ........................ 191   Table 20. Document Analysis: Source, Data, Reflection and Coding.......................... 192   Table 21. Research Question, Reflection for Comparison to National Evaluation, Code Assigned.................................................................................................................. 200  
xviii Table 22. RQ 1: GEAR-Up Practices, Social Capital Enhanced, and Occurrences of Codes in Triangulation Process............................................................................... 208   Table 23. RQ 2: GEAR-Up Practices, Social Capital Enhanced, and Occurrences of Codes in Triangulation Process............................................................................... 209   Table 24. RQ Alignment to Social Capital and Code Occurrences.............................. 215   Table 25. RQ 1: Emerging Practices, Social Capital Process Features Enhanced, Code Occurrences............................................................................................................. 223   Table 26. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 3: Formal Contact with Parents, Data Examples. 230   Table 27. RQ 2: Emerging Practices, Social Capital Process Features Enhanced, Code Occurrences............................................................................................................. 233   Table 28. Participant Postsecondary Enrollment and ACT Scores............................... 241   Table 29. FAFSA High School Completion Rate......................................................... 246   Table 30. Comparing Academic Outcomes: GEAR-Up Participants and Non- Participants for College Ready Scores on Standardized Test and College Entrance Testing..................................................................................................................... 262   Table 31. Comparing Academic Outcomes of GEAR-Up Participants and Non- Participants for Rigor of Course Selection ............................................................. 263   Table 32. Examples for the Code GPSCR- Counselor to Student Ratio and Personal Relationships........................................................................................................... 265   Table 33. Dominant themes for Social Capital Enhanced by the Emerging GEAR-Up practices .................................................................................................................. 278   Table 34. Emerging GEAR-UP practices in order of significance............................... 279   Table 35. Practical Implications for Enhancing Family Social Capital........................ 299   Table 36. Practical Implications for Enhancing School Social Capital........................ 300   Table 37. Initial Coding Table...................................................................................... 366   Table 38. Social Capital Process Feature Codes with Examples of Coded Data ......... 369   Table 39. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 1, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 371   Table 40. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 2, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 373  
xix xix Table 41. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 1, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 376   Table 42. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 2 (Assistance Filling Out College Applications, Enhanced Social Capital ......................................................................................... 378   Table 43. Emerging Practice 3: Tutoring and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features ................................................................................................................................. 380   Table 44. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 4, Sponsoring Trips and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features...................................................................................................... 382   Table 45. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 5, Academic Advising and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features...................................................................................................... 385   Table 46. Examples for the Code GPCSR- Counselor to Student Ratio and Personal Relationships........................................................................................................... 387  
xx xx List of Figures Figure 1. GEAR-Up program general characteristics....................................................... 34   Figure 2. Convergence of evidence from data sources to support validity..................... 132   Figure 3. Student questionnaire responses item 49......................................................... 224   Figure 4. Student questionnaire responses item 24......................................................... 225   Figure 5. Staff participant questionnaire responses to amount of time spent on each activity..................................................................................................................... 237   Figure 6. GEAR-Up student questionnaire responses 5a-5g. ......................................... 237    
1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Introduction An emphasis on equitable college and postsecondary access for all students has been placed on America’s schools (Contreras, 2011). The existing empirical literature that investigated postsecondary pursuits of disadvantaged students consistently supported that students who lived in poverty and/or were members of an ethnic minority that had capabilities similar to their more advantaged peers were less likely to attend college due to a deficit in the social capital that was necessary to plan for and attain postsecondary education (Bryan, Moore-Thomas, Day-Vines, & Holcomb-McCoy, 2011; Frempong, Ma, & Mensah, 2012). The Hispanic population was one of the fastest growing populations in the United States, and the least likely to prepare for and pursue education after high school (Contreras, 2011). This study investigated which of the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) influenced the postsecondary decisions of rural Hispanic youth. Social capital was defined as capital that was inherent within an individual’s relationships (Coleman, 1990). In this investigation, social capital was explored in two realms, family and school. The social capital existing in families and schools involved the relationships, beliefs, conversations, expectations, and life events that influenced decision-making of youth (Carolan-Silva &Reyes, 2013; Wooley, Kol, & Bowen, 2009). For example, a student who was raised to believe that it was his or her duty to work and contribute to the family budget may automatically envision going directly to the workforce and never consider postsecondary education based on social capital influences (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013).
2 The college admissions process has evolved into a competitive and complex process. Previous research indicated the social capital needed to aspire to postsecondary education often began in middle school (Cabrera et al., 2006). The GEAR-Up program was designed to support preparation and eventual enrollment in postsecondary education for disadvantaged students from 7th Grade throughout their high school graduation (Cates & Schaefle, 2011). This study investigated a GEAR-Up college readiness program that was implemented in a predominantly Hispanic rural school in the panhandle of Texas. For purposes of this study, a college readiness program was a federal or state governed program that was designed for the purpose of increasing the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enroll in postsecondary education (Cates & Schaefle, 2011). Students who had parents that did not attend some form of postsecondary education were at a disadvantage in gaining the social capital that comes more readily to their peers with parents who have navigated the process of enrolling in an institution of higher education (Bryan et al., 2011). Many times these students were from minority, low socioeconomic, or rural settings; or from a combination of these backgrounds (Byun, Meece, Irvin, Hutchins, 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006; Irvin, Meece, Byun, Farmer, & Hutchins, 2011). Social capital theory provided the framework of reference for this investigation that sought to contribute to the knowledge needed for developing more equitable access to postsecondary opportunities. It was not only important to the Hispanic individuals and their families, but also to the future of rural areas and the larger society for this rapidly growing population to reach their full potential.
3 This qualitative case study investigated how the GEAR-Up college readiness program influenced social capital that impacted postsecondary decisions for rural Hispanic students who participated in the program for the recommended entire six-year period. Data was collected from students and staff members that participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. Approximately 77% of the graduating class of 2013 received GEAR-Up services for the entire six-year period. A large percentage of graduates participating in the program and collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, and documentation created potential for a robust investigation. Including data from three sources: questionnaires, interviews, and documents, allowed for triangulation, a process of validating data through multiple sources to determine if the different methods of data collection produced similar results across converging lines of inquiry (Yin, 2013). Data collection and analysis is thoroughly described in Chapter 3. The remainder of Chapter one will include a brief background of the study, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, research questions, a discussion concerning the advancement of scientific knowledge, significance of the study, the rationale for the methodology, nature of the research design, definition of terms, assumptions, limitations and delimitations, and a summary and description of organization for the remainder of the study. Background of the Study In 1900, the College Examination Board was created to establish uniform guidelines for college admission. The turn of the century brought about change in education to direct high school curriculum toward a differentiated instruction according to the most likely future for the student, thus creating high expectations for some and low
4 expectations for others. This focus on differentiation led to disparity between whites and ethnic minorities in educational opportunity (Ladson-Billings, 2007). In 1958, in response to the Russian release of Sputnik, more funding was granted to higher education institutions to increase competitiveness of America’s college graduates in mathematics, science, and foreign languages (Powell, 2007). In 1960 the federal government responded with the first federally funded college readiness program known as TRIO (Royster, Gross, & Hochbein, 2015). Since that time, there have been numerous programs, such as Quantum Opportunities, Upward Bound, Talent Search, and GEAR-Up, that were funded by the federal government, higher education institutions, and interested private philanthropists, and targeted a smoother transition to higher education for students from disadvantaged backgrounds (Thurston, 2009). In 1989 under President George H.W. Bush, governors participated in a national summit on education to raise the standards in academics in order to be globally competitive (Smylie, 1997). One of the resulting college readiness initiatives from that summit was GEAR-Up. In 1998, the GEAR-Up college readiness program was developed (United States Department of Education, 2014). GEAR-Up was one of several college readiness initiatives for underrepresented student populations that targeted a broad population of students, rather than a population that was chosen based on merit. The students and staff members targeted for the sample population in this investigation were participants in the GEAR-Up program in a rural Texas high school from 2008-2013. GEAR-Up program involvement had the potential to facilitate the social capital necessary for enrolling in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Bryan et al., 2012; Meyka, 2013). The students in the targeted sample population
5 were Hispanic students that had participated in the GEAR-Up program from 7th grade throughout graduation from high school in 2013. Even though important strides had been made in closing the achievement gap between whites and other disadvantaged populations for receiving a high school diploma, the gap continued to exist regarding access to and degree completion in higher education (Aud et al., 2013). Hispanic students were still less likely to acquire an advanced degree than white students (Aud et al., 2013). It was important to continue to investigate what was effective in guiding disadvantaged students with equal potential to their more advantaged peers to become all that they can be through pursuit of higher education. The sample population for this investigation was students of Hispanic ethnicity who graduated from a rural school in Texas. In the late 1970’s Hispanics made up less than two percent of the student population in America (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). At the time of this investigation, Hispanics made up approximately one- sixth of the total student population in America (Aud et al., 2013). The postsecondary achievement gap between Hispanics and Whites continued to widen due to the rapid population growth among Hispanics and the social capital deficits characteristic of Hispanic families regarding access to and enrollment in postsecondary education (Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). Rural environments were also found to contribute to deficits in the social capital necessary to make a decision to attend postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Byun et al., 2012). Isolation of some rural communities inhibited some students from having experiences, such as visits to college campuses that could facilitate a vision and aspiration for postsecondary education (Irvin et al., 2011).
6 Empirical literature investigating GEAR-Up and similar programs targeting disadvantaged populations of students for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of enrollment and persistence in postsecondary education indicated social capital process features such as, parental involvement, relationships with counselors and teachers, access to information about postsecondary education, academic advising, and parental expectation to attend postsecondary institutions, as instrumental in the decision-making processes for disadvantaged students regarding postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Bernhardt, 2013; Bryan et al., 2011). This investigation added to the existing knowledge regarding how the GEAR-Up program influenced the postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged Hispanic students from a rural high school in Texas. Problem Statement It was not known how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program at a rural school facilitated the social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. Studies by Byun et al. (2012) and Clark, Ponjuan, Orrock, Wilson, and Flores (2013), recommended that further research was needed regarding social capital process features and the needs of rural Hispanic students. “An important objective for future rural research is to examine the social processes by which ethnicity shapes rural youth’s future.” (Byun et al., 2012, p.13). Clark et al. (2013) conducted a study investigating the social influences surrounding Hispanic students and their educational attitudes, choices, and persistence, and found that services such as counseling, relationships with caring adults, mentoring, family and cultural support provided by the school and communication about postsecondary opportunities played an important role in Hispanic choices concerning
7 postsecondary education. The GEAR-Up program experienced by the participants in this study facilitated the influences supported by Clark et al., (2013) as conducive to creating aspirations in disadvantaged populations for postsecondary education. This investigation focused on which of the practices provided by this particular GEAR-Up program provided to rural Hispanic students influenced postsecondary decisions. The targeted population for this investigation was graduates from a rural high school in Texas consisting of 83.5% Hispanic students. Over half (approximately 190) of the graduating class of 245 participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008 throughout graduation from high school in 2013 facilitating an opportunity for this investigation to contribute to the existing empirical literature supporting the connection between social capital and postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Engberg and Allen (2011) emphasized the importance of equitable access to postsecondary opportunities for individuals and society and recommended further research to discover more about the multi-faceted processes that determine whether or not a student will pursue higher education and the involvement of social capital in that decision making process. This investigation attempted to fill existing gaps in the literature and contribute to solving the achievement gap problem in access to postsecondary education by conducting an investigation focused on the previously stated problem statement. College readiness programs such as GEAR-Up were designed to increase the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enter and succeed in postsecondary education (Thurston, 2009). State and federally funded college readiness programs such as GEAR-Up usually included early intervention to raise the academic expectations of disadvantaged youth and
8 their families and aimed to facilitate social capital process features. Examples of social capital features included: parental expectation for a child to attend college and involvement with school, student and parent relationships with school counselors, interactions with college/military representatives, access to information about college such as college publications and websites, academic and test preparation, and peer expectations (Barnett et al., 2012; Byun et al., 2012). As referenced in Byun et al. (2012) and Clark et al. (2013), further research was needed to investigate social capital as it related to postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged students. This study advanced what was currently understood about how practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program compensated for social capital deficits in the process features conducive to aspiring to and succeeding in postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how students and staff members in a rural school perceived how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. For the purpose of this study, social capital was examined in two realms, family social capital and school social capital. Family social capital was defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Byun et al., 2012; Coleman, 1990). School social capital was defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and
9 relationships with teachers and counselors that guided the student in postsecondary pursuits (Byun et al. 2012). Former students who were in the GEAR-Up cohort in a rural Texas school began receiving services from GEAR-Up in the 7th grade and continued with those services through graduation from high school in 2013. Students who participated during the entire six-year period and completed high school in 2013 were contacted by gaining permission from the district to retrieve permanent address information for the students from historical data within the student information system. This population consisted of a group of students who were currently attending postsecondary education and a group of students who chose not to enroll in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school. GEAR-Up staff members were also asked to participate in the data collection process. Questionnaires were distributed to a larger pool of student and staff participants from the target population described in detail in Chapter 3. Data from the questionnaires was used for triangulation purposes as well as for identifying participants for the interviews. Triangulation is a strategy for creating construct validity in case studies by collecting information from several sources while aiming at producing converging evidence for the phenomenon being investigated (Yin, 2013). The data from the interviews and questionnaires were recorded and analyzed to determine themes and similarities that indicated answers to the research questions. Documents were reviewed to further confirm or challenge the indications of the questionnaire and interview data collection. Qualitative data obtained through the case study design was assessed to determine the GEAR-Up program practices that contributed
10 to the enhancement of family and school social capital that was necessary for successful transition to postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Results from this qualitative case study contributed to the growing field of knowledge concerning the phenomena of social capital as a venue for closing the postsecondary achievement gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students with regard to postsecondary education (Bryan et al., 2011; Byun et. al., 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006; Irvin et al., 2011). Research Questions The research questions that guided this study targeted a gap in current literature informing what was known about assisting rural Hispanic students to gain the social capital necessary to envision and enroll in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school. Disparities continued to exist between rural and non-rural students in aspirations and enrollment (Byun et al., 2012). There was a lack of evidence that targeted actual enrollment in postsecondary education rather than only aspiring to attend (Bernhardt, 2013; Dyce, Alboid, & Long, 2012). Additional existing gaps in the literature reviewed for this study included the lack of empirical college readiness studies targeting rural students, lack of empirical evidence for long-term rather than short-term participation in the GEAR-Up college readiness program, and a lack of qualitative work that explored how practices and services provided by college readiness programs such as GEAR-Up influenced social capital processes important to postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged youth (Byun et al., 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006). Byun et al. (2012) reported that relatively little research had been conducted with rural populations concerning the interaction of social capital and educational achievement. Cabrera et al. (2006) reported that effects of college readiness programs
11 may be cumulative and that current research existed for populations that had participated only for small amounts of time. More research was needed for longer period of participation to reveal if more profound results manifested through longer participation in the program. Investigating the research questions through the perspective of the sample population in this study including a rural population with long-term participation and actual enrollment in postsecondary education contributed to the existing gaps in the literature described in the previous paragraph. The current study included one overarching question that guided the study and two research questions that focused the investigation specifically on each realm of social capital (family and school) described in the previous section. The research questions are presented below: Overarching Question: Which of the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital and how did that social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education? R1: How did students and staff members perceive that the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced family social capital and how did that family social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education? R2: How did students and staff members perceive that the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced school social capital, and how did that school social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education?
12 Advancing Scientific Knowledge The theoretical foundation for this study was social capital theory (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1990; Putnam, 2000, 2002). French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu and American sociologist James Coleman were accredited with the establishment of the theoretical framework of social capital (Portes, 1998). The concept of social capital as supported by Bourdieu and Coleman could be summarized as the benefits afforded to persons and families from their social connections. Robert Putnam (2000, 2002), a political scientist, also contributed to the development of social capital theory by including the influence of social capital on larger groups within society, such as cities and countries. More recent research has contributed to social capital theory as it related to educational aspirations and academic achievement (Bryan et al., 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013; James, Busher, & Suttill, 2015). The current research study advanced the development of social capital theory by focusing on a population of students that were from a rural area and of Hispanic ethnicity, two characteristics associated with lower levels of academic achievement (Irvin et al., 2011; Shapiro, Meschede, & Osoro, 2013). Answers to the research questions from this population consisting of rural Hispanic students informed the development of social capital theory as it related to the transition to postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Family social capital, defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Coleman, 1990) were explored through investigating the first research question (RQ 1) that was focused on discovering how the students and staff
13 members perceived that the practices and services provided through long term participation in the GEAR-Up program enhanced family social capital and how that family social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. School social capital, defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and relationships with teachers and counselors (Byun et al., 2012) was explored through investigating the second research question (RQ 2) that was focused on discovering how the students and staff members perceived that the practices and serviced provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced school social capital and how that school social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. This study advanced what was known about how family and school social capital could be influenced by the GEAR-Up practices to compensate for social disadvantages that rural Hispanic students face, such as lack of access to information about college or low parental expectation and knowledge of the college application process (Bryan et al., 2011; Byun et al., 2012). Significance of the Study A substantial amount of empirical literature suggested that social capital shaped educational goals and accomplishments for individuals (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). This study, involving a unique population of students that were both Hispanic and who obtained a high school diploma in a rural setting, added to the knowledge base for building programs that could benefit the students who had these distinct social capital challenges documented in the literature as a result of rural locations and Hispanic ethnicity (Byun et al., 2012; Conclusions and Implications,
14 2013). Empirical studies investigating a population of students who had the simultaneous challenges that existed for rural Hispanic students in the process of aspiring to and enrolling in postsecondary institutions were scant in the body of research available on postsecondary attainment of disadvantaged students. The research in this study contributed information that could be instrumental in closing the gap in understanding how the GEAR-Up program enhanced family and school social capital process features that facilitated enrollment in postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Addressing the issues that existed for access to postsecondary opportunities for rural Hispanic students could impact and add value to rural communities by advancing knowledge that could build stronger educational foundations and contributions of upcoming members in rural communities, as well as increasing the quality of life for the Hispanic population in America (Engberg & Allen, 2011; Conclusions and Implications, 2013). This study could lead to important information for designing practical applications that enhance college readiness programs for rural at-risk youth. This investigation targeted rural Hispanic students with long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program seeking answers to the research questions that targeted which aspects of the GEAR-Up program were instrumental in addressing the individual needs of these students. The purpose was to find out how GEAR-Up practices enhanced awareness and aspirations for postsecondary opportunities that resulted in actual enrollment in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school for rural Hispanic students. Rationale for Methodology The methodology chosen for the research in this study was a qualitative case study using questionnaires, interviews, and documents. Qualitative investigations
15 facilitated a structured subjective technique used to explore a phenomenon through describing life experiences of individuals and giving them meaning (Merriam, 2009). This qualitative case study was about understanding the meanings individuals fabricate from interactions within society in order to assist with their social lives (Sallee, 2012). The original research design for this investigation was a quantitative study comparing the academic performance of the GEAR-Up cohort of students to 2012 graduates that did not receive GEAR-Up services. Quantitative research is a method of explaining phenomena through the use of numerical data and mathematical based methods of analysis (Keselman, Lix, & Keselman, 2011). In reviewing the literature for GEAR-Up and other college readiness initiatives, the literature on college readiness programs seemed to be replete with studies that used quantitative numerical methodologies to evaluate and investigate GEAR-Up and other college readiness programs (Cabrera et al., 2006; Engberg & Wolniak, 2014; Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). Nunez and Dongbin (2012) conducted a quantitative study that used a multilevel statistical framework to investigate the role of student, school, and state level characteristics as influences on Hispanic students’ college enrollment patterns, and recommended that future studies address wider range of psychological, social, and cultural factors that may be contributing to the postsecondary achievement gap for Hispanic students. This qualitative case study addressed some of the social factors recommended by Nunez and Dongbin (2012). Quantitative research on college readiness programs confirmed that college readiness programs had a positive effect on grades, rigorous coursework, and performance on standardized tests (Cabrera et al., 2006; Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). The
16 unanswered questions were concerning how programs such as GEAR-Up influenced postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged youth. This qualitative case study contributed to the unanswered questions about how GEAR-Up influenced postsecondary decisions by discovering how the student and staff participants perceived that the practices and services provided by GEAR-Up interacted with social capital to influence postsecondary decisions of rural Hispanic students with long term participation in the GEAR-Up program in a rural district in Texas. Questions investigating how programs and initiatives have influence are best answered by a qualitative case study approach (Yin, 2013). Merriam and Tisdell (2015) define qualitative research as, “an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.” (p.15). This investigation added to the growing body of research that targeted how social capital theory and college readiness programs played a role in the postsecondary choices of disadvantaged youth. Nature of the Research Design for the Study Qualitative investigations seek to unravel the meaning of social contexts and an individual’s perception and constructs that develop as a result of interactions with social influences and experiences (Merriam, 2009). For purposes of this study, the participants’ viewpoints regarding the social context provided through the GEAR-Up program and the influence of the specific components available within the GEAR-Up context upon enrollment or non-enrollment in postsecondary education were explored through questionnaires, interviews, and review of relevant documents. There are different
17 methods of study within qualitative research, each having advantages and disadvantages contingent upon the type of research question, the control the researcher has over behavioral influences, and the focus on contemporary rather than historical phenomena (Yin, 2013). Among the different methods of qualitative research are case studies, experiments, and surveys (Yin, 2013). Experiments and surveys are effective methods for conducting explanatory investigations with the goal being to develop hypotheses and concepts for further research (Yin, 2013). Experiments are investigations in which the researcher exerts control over the variables in the study with the purpose of answering “what” questions that explore the outcomes of a particular phenomenon (Yin, 2013). In experimental studies, the investigator is able to manipulate behavior directly, precisely and systematically (Yin, 2013). In this investigation, the researcher did not manipulate behaviors of the sample population; therefore an experimental study was not appropriate. Survey studies are designed to investigate and specify the outcomes of a phenomenon or experience answering “What?” questions regarding those experiences (Yin, 2013). In this study, the research questions were not concerned with answers to “What?” questions that enumerated the outcomes of participation in the GEAR-Up program. Rather, this investigation sought to answer “How?” questions regarding which of the GEAR-Up program practices and services enhanced the social capital process features that influenced the decisions of rural Hispanic youth to enroll postsecondary education. This type of investigation was of an exploratory rather than explanatory nature as in experiments and surveys. Exploratory investigations such as the current study could lead to the use of a case study design because the case study is more favorable for examining contemporary events when the relevant behaviors cannot be manipulated (Yin,
18 2013). The case study method allowed for the flexibility needed to investigate a wide range of topics and possibilities with the participants for the purpose of accurately answering the research questions that probe how the GEAR-Up program enhanced the family and school social capital process features that increased the likelihood of postsecondary enrollment and persistence for rural Hispanic youth. Merriam (2009) argued that case studies were qualitative work that involved bounded phenomena such as a program, event, person, process, institution, or social group. In this investigation the bounded phenomena lies in participation in the GEAR-Up program and the social capital process features that were enhanced by that participation. Case studies were appropriate when the sample sizes were small (Yin, 2013). The sample size for this study consisted of 26 participants. The sample population included both staff members and students from the GEAR-Up program in a rural Texas panhandle high school. Twenty-one of the 26 participants in the sample population for this study were selected from the larger population of 245 students in the graduating Class of 2013. Out of those 245 students, approximately 139 Hispanic students participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. A recruitment script and informed consent was mailed to the 139 Hispanic students who were likely to have participated in the GEAR-Up program. A questionnaire (Appendix B) was mailed or emailed to 32 Hispanic students who returned the informed consent. Out of the 32 students who returned the informed consents, 21 of them also returned the questionnaire. Ten of those 21 Hispanic students participated in the interviews. The other five participants in the sample population were GEAR-Up staff members who returned the informed consent and questionnaire and indicated willingness to participate in the interviews. Consequently, 21 former students returned the
19 questionnaire and 10 of those 21 participated in the interviews. Five former staff members completed the questionnaire and also participated in the interview. In total, there were 26 questionnaires and fifteen interviews included in the questionnaire and interview data. Data from the questionnaires was analyzed as part of the triangulation process for validating the findings from the study. The sample population also included GEAR-Up staff members from this particular high school that served in any capacity during the tenure of the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. Twelve staff members were contacted by phone or email and asked to participate in the study. A recruitment script and informed consent were mailed or emailed to the seven participants who indicated a willingness to participate in the study. Five staff participants returned the questionnaire (Appendix C) and participated in the interview (Appendix E). Data from the questionnaires were analyzed as part of the triangulation process for validating the findings from this study. This qualitative case study utilized questionnaires, interviewing, and documents as data collection instruments. The questionnaires (Appendices B & C) were similar to the interview protocols (Appendices D & E) to allow for thematically categorizing and comparing data across multiple data sources. Interviewing in qualitative research allows the researcher the flexibility to explore participant views based on emerging information during the interview in order to collect worthwhile data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Yin (2013) asserted that the interview was one of the most important sources of case study information because interviews that guided conversations rather than presented structured
20 queries were more fluid than rigid and allowed for more flexibility in discovery of pertinent data. The three data sources, questionnaires, interviews and documents informed the research questions by soliciting data from the participants that was analyzed to discover converging themes from the three data sources. The items on the questionnaires (Appendices A & B) and interview protocols (Appendices D & C) targeted either RQ 1 or RQ 2 as outlined in further detail in Chapter 3 (Table 1). Document evidence included national evaluations of college readiness programs, statistical reports from educational agencies, and records from the rural school the participants attended including transcripts, test score rosters and parental involvement records. These documents informed the research questions by providing comparative data analysis between the GEAR-Up program involving the participants and national college readiness programs as well as comparative analysis between academic achievement of the participants receiving GEAR-Up services and a similar group of students from the same high school that did not receive GEAR-Up services. Yin (2013) encouraged researchers to view the literature review not as a source solely to determine answers about what was known about a matter, but to review the literature to develop more insightful questions about the subject matter. Two interview protocols (Appendices C & D) based on the review of the literature and the significant data that pertained to the perspective of the participant were followed. One interview protocol was for the students who participated in the GEAR-Up program (see Appendix D) and the other protocol (see Appendix E) was for staff members that served in the GEAR-Up program. Interviews were audiotaped to allow for transcription and reflection
21 of participant reactions to the interviews. The transcriptions and reflections were kept as part of the case study record and thematically coded in the data analysis phase of the investigation. Another source of information that was used to validate and expand the data was the use of documents relevant to the study such as student transcripts, national evaluations of GEAR-Up and other college readiness programs, and federal and state statistical reports, and standardized testing rosters. Through the collection of data through three different sources, the data for this investigation was triangulated, meaning the results of the study were more compelling and accurate because the data was based on several different sources of information revealing converging lines of inquiry (Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2013). Definition of Terms The operational definitions of terms used in this study are listed below for the purpose of clarity in comprehension and consistency of meaning throughout the study. Achievement gap. According to the United States Department of Education, achievement gaps reflect differences in academic performance between subgroups of students and their peers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). For purposes of this study the achievement gap between whites and Hispanic students in enrolling in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school was examined. College Readiness Program. For purposes of this study a college readiness program was a federally or state governed program that was designed for the purpose of increasing the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enroll in and persist in postsecondary education (Thurston, 2009).
22 Disadvantaged student. A disadvantaged student was one who came from an environment that had inhibited the individual from obtaining the knowledge, skill, and abilities required to enroll in and graduate from a school (Health Resources and Services Administration, 2012). The population for this investigation was considered disadvantaged due to Hispanic ethnicity, rural location, and low-income factors (Byun et al., 2012; Aud et al., 2013). First generation student. A student whose parents’ highest level of education is a high school diploma or less (Ward, Siegel, & Zebulin, 2012). GEAR-Up. The Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs initiative was a federal P-16 program intended for students to receive program services for six years, 7th grade through high school graduation. The program was designed to heighten college awareness and readiness for disadvantaged populations of students. For purposes of this study, the operational definition of GEAR-Up was the college awareness program offered to students who graduated in the Class of 2013 from a rural school in the panhandle of Texas that was awarded the GEAR-Up grant. The sample population in this investigation participated in the GEAR-Up program from 7th grade through high school graduation in 2013 (Texas Education Agency, 2014). Habitus. Habitus was an individual’s constitution that influenced the actions that individual takes. Habitus can be exuded through life choices and physical characteristics such as the way one dresses, carries one’s self, walks or speaks. Habitus was created by an individual’s place in a social structure (Gaddis, 2013). The operational definition of habitus for this investigation was influences on an individual’s educational aspirations due to perceptions acquired through one’s position in the immediate surrounding social
23 structure, that cause the belief that postsecondary education either is or is not a possibility based on messages received through one’s habitus. Hispanic. From the Census Report, 2012, Hispanic was defined as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Operationally in this study, Hispanic students were chosen based on Hispanic ethnicity indicated within the Hereford High School Student Informational System for 2013. Postsecondary education. Postsecondary Education was defined as “an academic, vocational, technical, home study, business, professional, or other school, college, or university or other organization or person offering educational services (primarily to persons who have completed or terminated their secondary education or who are beyond the age of compulsory school attendance) for attainment of educational, professional, or vocational objectives.” (National Center for Education Statistics, 1981, p. 3). The operational definition for postsecondary education in this study was enrolling in a university, trade or technical school or community college the summer or fall semester after graduating from high school in 2013. Process features. Various attributes of family and school social capital important in predicting educational aspirations for rural students. Some examples include: • Parental expectation for a child to attend college (Byun et al., 2012) • Parental Involvement with School (Altschul, 2011; Byun et al., 2012) • Relationships with Counselors (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011; Hoy, 2012) • Interactions with college/military representatives (Byun et al., 2012) • Access to information about college such as college publications and websites (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011) • Academic/Test Preparation (Byun et al., 2012; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2011) • Peer expectations (Byun et al., 2012).
24 Rural. Rural areas were defined as all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Operationally for this investigation, Hereford High School students were considered as living in a rural area based on the urban-centric local codes by the U.S. Census Bureau for the National Center for Education Statistics (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Social capital. Social Capital was defined as capital that was inherent within an individual’s relationships (Coleman, 1990). For operational purposes in this investigation social capital was investigated in two different realms: Family social capital was defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Coleman, 1990). School social capital was defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and relationships with teachers and counselors that guided the student in postsecondary pursuits (Byun et al., 2012). Social justice. A concept advocating that all people are equally valuable and deserved to live in a fair and democratic society that provided equal opportunities for all (Hursh & Martina, 2014). For operational purposes in this study social justice for postsecondary education referred to viewing students from disadvantaged backgrounds with the same potential as their peers for postsecondary education. Socioeconomic status (SES). Socioeconomic status was commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual or group. It was often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. Socioeconomic status
25 often revealed inequities in access to resources, plus issues related to privilege, power and control (American Psychological Association, 2013). Triangulation. The triangulation of data occurred when various methods are used to gather qualitative data. Data triangulation validated the data and research by cross verifying the same information creating solid validity and reliability in the data (Yin, 2013). Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations Assumptions. The first assumption for this investigation was that permission would be received from a rural district in Texas to access contact information for the GEAR-Up participants through the district student information system. The second assumption was that it would be possible to locate and gain the agreement of participation from approximately 50 members of the desired sample population. It was also methodologically assumed that interview participants would respond honestly causing the results of this study to reflect accurate and honest perceptions of students who were exposed to the GEAR-Up program. This assumption was made because the participant’s anonymity and confidentiality was protected providing a secure environment for promoting a comfortable rapport that encouraged sincerity and honesty between the participants and the interviewer. It was theoretically assumed that individuals in disadvantaged circumstances could be enlightened and encouraged to envision possibilities beyond the realm of their current context. This assumption was derived from the basic desire within human nature to thrive and experience comfort in life. This derivation was based on self-determination
26 theory that postulated human motivation stemmed from inherent needs for accomplishment and autonomy (Dettweiler, 2015). Delimitations and limitations. The current study was delimited to Hispanic graduates from one rural high school in the panhandle of Texas. This delimitation hindered generalizability of results to other disadvantaged ethnicities or disadvantaged individuals from rural areas with different nuances than a rural setting in Texas. Another limitation was the perceptions and understanding of the English interview with Hispanic students who predominantly speak English as a second language, however because each of the participants completed high school in Texas, a state that requires successful completion of exit level tests given in English, it was assumed that there would be adequate communication so that this limitation was not detrimental to the findings of the investigation. Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study In Chapter 1 a need for investigating programs such as GEAR-Up college readiness that attempted to level the playing field for all students regarding educational opportunities has been presented. Legislators and practitioners were in need of relevant data to inform social capital theory for the purpose of allowing for more equitable educational opportunities in America (Contreras, 2011). If the United States of America desires to stay at the forefront of all nations educationally, socially, and economically, it was imperative that the rapidly growing populations of Hispanic youth be afforded opportunities to enroll in and succeed in postsecondary education (Engberg & Allen, 2011). By qualitatively investigating solutions for the problem statement through the research questions for this investigation, social capital theory was enhanced as well as the
27 knowledge base for what was known about assisting Hispanic students from a rural area in transitioning to postsecondary pursuits. In the next chapter, a comprehensive literature review of current research regarding college readiness and current college readiness practices and initiatives will be presented. The literature review also includes an in depth review of both seminal and current research for social capital theory, the theoretical framework for this study. Chapter 3 will describe the methodology, research design, and procedures for this investigation. Chapter 4 will detail how the data was analyzed and provides both a written and graphic summary of the results. Chapter 5 will be an interpretation and discussion of the results, as it related to the existing body of research pertaining to the dissertation topic.
28 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem Orientation to the literature. This chapter will provide a description of the literature review process followed by a background section discussing the historical overview and the evolvement of the gap in postsecondary achievement as well as gaps in the literature that led to the problem statement and research questions for this investigation. The theoretical foundation for the study, social capital theory, will be presented with a discussion of the foundational theory, seminal sources, concepts in social capital theory, history of social capital theory, and social capital theory in more current literature. A summary of prevalent methodologies in the empirical literature reviewed is presented followed by a discussion of the instrumentation chosen for the current study. The review of the literature follows instrumentation section. The review of literature has three main sections and a conclusion: 1) Effects of College Readiness Programs 2) Factors that Lead to Postsecondary Education, and 3) The Importance of the High School Context. Within the first section of the review of literature discussing the effects of college readiness programs, findings relative to differences in the targeted populations will be discussed describing the theme emerging from a review of the literature on effects of college readiness programs. The second section of the literature review synthesizes and summarizes the current empirical literature on factors that lead to postsecondary education. Among these factors supported by empirical work were rigorous academic choices in high school (Adelman, 1999, 2006), college ready scores on standardized (Royster et al., 2015), positive relationships (Reddick et al., 2011), and enrollment in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Roderick
29 et al., 2011). The third section of the literature review is a synthesis of an emerging theme concerning the importance of the high school context, especially pertaining to rural Hispanic students and the deficit in social capital that could be compensated through education and communities. Three empirical articles are reviewed in this section (Bryan et al., 2012; Hill; 2008; Engberg & Wolniak, 2010). This section concludes with a summary analyzing the importance of the high school context based on empirical evidence. Finally, the literature review closes with a summary reviewing the themes and findings from the current literature on college readiness programs and the relationship to social capital theory. Description of literature review process. A substantial number of databases were utilized to conduct a thorough investigation of the literature available relevant to college readiness indicators and programs and social capital theory as it related to educational attainment. The databases included: Education Research Complete, ERIC (EBSCO), Omnifile Full Text Select (Education), ProQuest Educational Journals, Academic Search Complete, ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis, ProQuest The Humanities and Social Sciences, ProQuest Central, PsychArticles, and PsychInfo. The search parameters were limited to scholarly and peer reviewed material. Research based books written by knowledgeable authors in the area of postsecondary achievement for disadvantaged students and social capital theory were also included as resources. Search terms included relevant terminology including but not limited to, “postsecondary education”, “postsecondary achievement gap”, “hispanic education”, “rural education”, “social capital theory”, “habitus”, and “college readiness”.
30 For this review, 88 empirical articles were read and evaluated in search of themes and connections within the literature on social capital theory and access to postsecondary education. Three books were reviewed as seminal sources for social capital theory. Five additional books were included with more current information regarding barriers to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students and social capital theory. Twenty research reports relating to GEAR-Up and access to postsecondary education were analyzed and information was included in the review when relevant. One recent dissertation was consulted revealing more about what is already known and what gaps still existed for further research. Background to the problem. The lack of equitable opportunities in education has been a concern for educators and government officials from as early as 1891 (Kain & Singleton, 1996). In response to that concern, the College Examination Board was created in the 1900’s to ensure that higher educational opportunities were equitable for all (Kain & Singleton, 1996). Ladson-Billings (2007) conducted extensive research on this achievement gap in America and advocated that the achievement gap began with the freedmen’s schools that trained African-Americans as servants and crossed over into the unspoken educational expectations and biases for other groups of minority and disadvantaged populations. Social capital theory offered explanation for the underlying reasons behind the inequality in educational opportunities. Social capital theory research had shown that there were equally capable individuals in these types of settings that could be successful in postsecondary education if provided with quality social capital networks (McDonough, 2005; Putnam, 2000). At the time of this investigation, the Hispanic population was the
31 fastest growing population within the United States, yet they also had the lowest percentage of high school graduates that attended postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). Hispanic student’s parental knowledge of the college-going process and valuing education over employment had a significant effect on the choices of Hispanic students concerning postsecondary enrollment (Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). This cause-effect relationship indicated a possible connection to the habitus concept in social capital theory. Habitus referred to an individual’s environment and the beliefs that come about consciously and unconsciously as a result of that environment (Coleman, 1990). Using social capital theory and the habitus concept, this investigation was important in adding to the body of knowledge concerning access to postsecondary education and social capital theory. The habitus of Hispanic students could be less conducive to access to postsecondary education than those of other ethnicities (Altschul, 2011). This deficit in the habitus of the Hispanic culture was confirmed in Clark et al.’s (2013) qualitative phenomenological study investigating the educational support for and aspirations of Latino male students and postsecondary opportunities. Phenomenology was defined as the study of life experiences and consequent meanings (Clark et al., 2013). The results from the Clark et al. (2013) study indicated that agents within the Hispanic male habitus, such as family expectations and peer influences played a major role in the decision to transition to the either the workforce or postsecondary education after graduation from high school. Even though many Latino parents indicated that they valued higher education, they still expected their male children to contribute financially to the
32 family. Consequently, these Latino males chose to enter the workforce rather than try to balance a job with pursuing postsecondary degrees or certification (Clark et al., 2013). For both male and female Latino/a students, lack of parental knowledge in the college and financial aid application process, English language deficiencies, and influences of peers who did not hold an expectation for postsecondary pursuits were all supported in previous research as agents within the student’s habitus that hindered postsecondary aspirations for this rapidly growing ethnic population (Valencia, 2011). Another barrier to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students revealed in the literature was when school counselors had unintentional low expectations for a student due to ethnicity or socioeconomic status and how that affected the student’s initiative to seek counseling for postsecondary education as well as the effort school counselors applied to different groups of students based on counselor expectations and unintentional biases (Bryan et al., 2011). Griffin and Steen (2011) proposed that more research was needed in how to address a social justice approach in school counseling through postsecondary counseling curriculum to educate future counselors on a Social Justice multi-cultural strategy. Through the lens of social justice, students from disadvantaged backgrounds were viewed with the same potential as their peers for postsecondary education. Social justice was defined as a concept that advocated that all people were equally valuable and deserved to live in a fair and democratic society that provided equal opportunities for all (Hursch & Martina, 2014). The social justice approach was supported by social capital theory. Social justice and social capital were closely related concepts that exposed the proposition that equally capable students were not receiving equal opportunities due to a lack of social capital that could be facilitated
33 through ensuring socially just practices through entities such as educational institutions (Coleman, 1990). In response to this enduring gap between students from rural areas or ethnic minorities and white students, and the need for intervention and support from the middle school years through the transition to postsecondary education, the U.S. Department of Education had launched several federally supported transition or college readiness programs created to extend higher education opportunities for economically disadvantaged and underrepresented ethnic students. The effort began in 1965 as a result of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 with three federally funded programs referred to as TRIO (Thurston, 2009). The three main programs within TRIO were: Educational Talent Search, Upward Bound, and GEAR-Up (Thurston, 2009). The current investigation primarily focused on GEAR-Up (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) that was designed to provide an opportunity for disadvantaged students to receive the social capital necessary to pursue higher education (Thurston, 2009). Figure 1 depicts the general outline of the GEAR-Up program, however each program could be tailored to the unique needs of the population and community that were being served (Cole, 2010). In each GEAR-Up setting, as Figure 1 indicates, the goal of the GEAR-Up program was to provide general guidelines to enhance social capital necessary for postsecondary success regardless of the deficits that may be occurring as a result of family or disadvantaged circumstances. However, the strategies and programs offered within the spectrum of these guidelines varied depending on the needs of the students and community within that particular region (Cole, 2010).
34 Figure 1. GEAR-Up program general characteristics. Adapted from “A Guide to GEAR- Up Program Evaluation: Optimal Research Design, Methodology, and Data Elements”, Cole (2010), p. 2. The evolution of the achievement gap in postsecondary education began as inequity in educational opportunities and a misguided acceptance and expectation for the level of potential and achievement based on one’s ethnicity or societal status (Ladson- Billings, 2007). The realization of the equal potential and capability of all regardless of race or economic status had emerged through research that indicated that the deficit in social capital inadvertently experienced by minority and low socioeconomic students caused the gap in the academic achievement of equally capable students (Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2007). Students with deficits in social capital were more vulnerable to educational challenges due to personal and familial issues rather than academic ability or potential (Jez, 2014). Gear  Up  Program  Objectives   Build  relationships  that   encourage  attendance  at   school,  participation  in   extracurricular    activities,  and   effective  study  habits.   Increase  post-­‐secondary   aspirations,  knowledge,  and   awareness   Strengthen  Academic   Preparation  and  Achievement   College  course  enrollment,   success,  and  persistence.  
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Final Dissertation Boydstun_7_11_16

  • 1. Investigating GEAR-Up College Readiness Program's Influence on Postsecondary Decisions of Rural Hispanic Youth Submitted by Kelli Dawn Boydstun A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctorate of Education Grand Canyon University Phoenix, Arizona June 29, 2016
  • 2. © by Kelli Dawn Boydstun, 2016 All rights reserved.
  • 3.
  • 4.
  • 5. Abstract This qualitative case study investigated how the GEAR-Up college readiness program influenced the postsecondary decisions of Hispanic students who participated in the GEAR-Up program for the recommended six-year period in a rural school district in Texas. It was not known how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program at a rural school facilitated social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how students and staff members in a rural school perceived that long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital and influenced postsecondary decisions of Hispanic students. The theoretical foundation for this study was social capital theory. The participants in the study included 21 former students and five staff members who participated in the program from 2008-2013. The findings confirmed three practices for enhancing family social capital. The most prevalent practice for enhancing family social capital was financial aid assistance. Financial aid assistance encompassed guiding the parents through the process of applying for financial aid and scholarships. The remaining two practices found to enhance family social capital were forming relationships with parents and formal contact with parents. Five practices were confirmed as enhancing school social capital. The most prevalent practice for enhancing school social capital was college and career counseling. The remaining four practices confirmed as enhancing school social capital conducive for enrollment in postsecondary education were (in order of prevalence in the data): assistance filling out college applications, tutoring, sponsoring trips, and academic advising. Keywords: Social capital, postsecondary, rural, Hispanic students, GEAR-Up
  • 6. vi vi Dedication I dedicate this work and want to express my deep gratitude to my parents, Ted and Ninnette Boydstun. You have always believed in me until I could believe in me again. Thank you for being who you are: resilient, hard-working, steadfast, enduring, faithful to the end. I learned those things from you, and could not have accomplished this without what I learned from watching you live life. To my boys, Chase and Clay Burgess, you continue to be the reason I get up in the morning, and I have learned so much about life from you. I love you both so much. To Mitch and Stephanie and Renae and Marc, you have all encouraged me, prayed for me, offered your home as a quiet place to write and recover from life, and you have always believed in me. I am so thankful to have you as family. Your support has kept me going. To my Uncle Moran and Aunt Caroline. Uncle Moran, you told me to finish this. So I did. You also offered your home, your encouragement, and your expectation that drove my desire to continue on with this work. To my cousin Beth, your contagious enthusiasm always inspires me. To my grandparents including Granny Pounds, who gave to me her passion for writing and teaching, my Gemaw who was an example of who I always wanted to be, and my Aunt Erma, who always asked me about what I was reading. Finally, to the many students I have had the privilege to work with in planning for your future. I am grateful for each and every one as you have each one added to the passion that inspired me to pursue a doctorate in effective schools.
  • 7. vii vii Acknowledgments To begin, I would like to acknowledge my heavenly Father. It is only by His grace, and my Savior, Jesus Christ that I have been held together, empowered, and protected for the writing of this work to take place. I do not yet know the plan and purpose from here. But I know I can trust, that You will be faithful to complete what You start. I would also like to acknowledge my committee, Dr. Kristine Quade, Dr. David Cipra, and Dr. John Gustafson. Your guidance, expertise, and encouragement have been invaluable in this process. I am so fortunate to have been blessed with a dissertation chair and committee devoted to keen and thorough feedback. This work would not have reached completion without your direction. I would also like to acknowledge my niece, Cassidy Boydstun, and my friend, Walter Ziegler, who helped with the mailing of 139 questionnaires. I am grateful for friends that have endured and understood when I was unavailable while focusing on this work. I am fortunate to work with an amazing team of administrators and staff members at Hereford ISD as well as the former GEAR-Up students and staff members who participated in the study specifically: Richard Sauceda for being an awesome high school principal and always believing in me, Bena Glasscock, superior lead counselor, Elda Lucio, Carolene Fair, Stacy Andrews, counseling peers who have supported me through so much and are always willing to do more than their share of the work. I am grateful for Kate Baca, Karen Esquivel, and Linda Cumpton, former GEAR-Up staff that contributed invaluable information. I am indebted to each and every one of you and could not have done this without having people like you in my life.
  • 8. viii viii Table of Contents Table of Contents............................................................................................................. viii   List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xvii   List of Figures................................................................................................................... xx   Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study................................................................................... 1   Introduction................................................................................................................... 1   Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 3   Problem Statement........................................................................................................ 6   Purpose of the Study..................................................................................................... 8   Research Questions..................................................................................................... 10   Advancing Scientific Knowledge ............................................................................... 12   Significance of the Study............................................................................................ 13   Rationale for Methodology......................................................................................... 14   Nature of the Research Design for the Study.............................................................. 16   Definition of Terms..................................................................................................... 21   Achievement gap. ..................................................................................... 21   Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ................................................................... 25   Assumptions....................................................................................................... 25   Delimitations and limitations............................................................................. 26   Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study....................................... 26   Chapter 2: Literature Review............................................................................................ 28   Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ..................................... 28   Orientation to the literature................................................................................ 28   Description of literature review process. ........................................................... 29  
  • 9. ix ix Background to the problem................................................................................ 30   Theoretical Foundations.............................................................................................. 40   Social capital theory........................................................................................... 40   Seminal sources for social capital theory.................................................. 40   Concepts in social capital theory. ............................................................. 41   Historical literature and development of social capital theory. ................ 44   James Coleman and social capital theory. ................................................ 44   Robert Putnam and social capital theory. ................................................. 45   Current literature and social capital theory............................................... 47   Research questions and social capital theory............................................ 50   Review of the Literature ............................................................................................. 54   Effects of college readiness programs. .............................................................. 55   Effects of targeted college readiness programs. ....................................... 62   Effects of school-wide college readiness programs.................................. 66   Louisiana Gear-Up.................................................................................... 68   Summary: Effects of current college readiness programs. ................................ 71   Factors that led to postsecondary education. ..................................................... 74   Rigorous academic curriculum choices in high school............................. 75   College ready scores on standardized tests............................................... 77   Positive relationships. ............................................................................... 79   Enrollment in postsecondary education.................................................... 81   Academic preparation. .............................................................................. 86   Early expectation, intervention, and application....................................... 89   Summary: Factors that led to postsecondary education..................................... 92   Empirical study #1: Bryan et al. (2012).................................................... 94  
  • 10. x - x Empirical study #3: Hill (2008). ............................................................... 95   Empirical study #4: Wolniak & Engberg (2010)...................................... 98   Summary: The importance of school context. ................................................... 99   Methodology............................................................................................................. 100   Instrumentation ......................................................................................................... 102   Summary................................................................................................................... 104   Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................. 106   Introduction............................................................................................................... 106   Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 110   Research Questions................................................................................................... 110   Research Methodology ............................................................................................. 116   Research Design........................................................................................................ 117   Population and Sample Selection.............................................................................. 123   Sources of Data......................................................................................................... 128   Questionnaires.................................................................................................. 128   Audio recorded interviews............................................................................... 129   Documents. ...................................................................................................... 130   Validity ..................................................................................................................... 131   Reliability.................................................................................................................. 133   Data Collection and Management............................................................................. 134   Sample selection, recruitment, and assignment to groups. .............................. 134   Informed consent and rights of participants..................................................... 136   Questionnaires.................................................................................................. 137   Document analysis. .......................................................................................... 138   Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 140  
  • 11. xi xi Research questions and data collection............................................................ 140   Thematic analysis and coding process............................................................. 141   Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................. 146   Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................... 147   Summary................................................................................................................... 148   Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results............................................................................. 150   Introduction............................................................................................................... 150   Descriptive Data........................................................................................................ 153   Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................... 159   Staff participant data analysis. ......................................................................... 162   Staff questionnaire analysis. ................................................................... 162   Staff interview analysis........................................................................... 164   Student participant data analysis...................................................................... 169   Student questionnaire data analysis. ....................................................... 169   Student interview data analysis............................................................... 173   Incorporating NVivo software. ............................................................... 177   Themes coded for RQ 1. .................................................................................. 178   GPFPC: Formal parent contact. .............................................................. 179   GPFR: Forming relationships with parents............................................. 179   PFME: Mother’s expectation for her child to attend college.................. 180   PFPI: Parental involvement with school................................................. 180   Themes coded for RQ 2. .................................................................................. 180   GPCA: Assistance filling out college applications................................. 180   GPCC: College and career counseling.................................................... 181   GPPC: Personal counseling. ................................................................... 181  
  • 12. xii xii GPCSR: Counselor to student ratio. ....................................................... 181   GPCS: Assisting with course selection................................................... 182   GPGS: Goal setting................................................................................. 182   GPT: Tutoring......................................................................................... 182   GPST: Sponsoring trips. ......................................................................... 183   GPTP: Test preparation for state testing and college entrance exams.... 183   PFR: Relationships with teachers, coaches, and counselors................... 183   PFIC: Interactions with college representatives. .................................... 184   PFAC: Access to information about college such as: financial aid, college publications, and websites. ................................................................................. 184   PFAT: Academic and test preparation.................................................... 184   Document analysis. .......................................................................................... 191   Entry/Withdrawal and demographic records. ......................................... 193   Transcripts and test score rosters. ........................................................... 193   Graduation plan....................................................................................... 195   TAKS (Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills) exit level scores.. 196   ACT (American College Testing) Scores............................................... 197   Taking rigorous coursework. .................................................................. 197   Parent sign-in sheets......................................................................................... 198   FAFSA website................................................................................................ 198   National GEAR-Up evaluations....................................................................... 199   NCCEP AT&T Foundation National Evaluation Project (NCCEP, 2006)...... 200   ACT (2007) Using explore and plan data to evaluate GEAR-Up programs. ............................................................................................................................. 201   Early outcomes of the GEAR-Up program (Standing et al., 2008)........ 202   Triangulation of data........................................................................................ 204  
  • 13. xiii xiii Limitations in Data Analysis .................................................................................... 209   Results....................................................................................................................... 213   Overview of results. ......................................................................................... 214   Overview: Social capital process features. ............................................. 214   Overview: Questionnaire results............................................................. 215   Overview: Interview results.................................................................... 217   Overview: Document results................................................................... 219   Overview: Findings................................................................................. 221   Research Question 1. ................................................................................................ 222   Practice 1: Financial aid assistance.................................................................. 223   Practice 1: Interview evidence................................................................ 223   Practice 1: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 224   Practice 1: Document evidence............................................................... 226   Practice 2: Forming relationships with parents................................................ 227   Practice 2: Interview evidence................................................................ 227   Practice 2: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 228   Practice 2: Document evidence............................................................... 228   Practice 3: Formal contact with parents........................................................... 229   Practice 1: College and career counseling. ...................................................... 234   Practice 1: Interview evidence................................................................ 234   Practice 1: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 235   Practice 1: Document evidence............................................................... 238   Practice 2: Assistance filling out college applications..................................... 242   Practice 2: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 243   Practice 2: Document evidence............................................................... 245  
  • 14. xiv xiv Practice 3 Tutoring........................................................................................... 246   Practice 3: Interview evidence................................................................ 247   Practice 3: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 248   Practice 3: Document evidence............................................................... 250   Practice 4 Sponsoring trips. ............................................................................. 251   Practice 4: Interview evidence................................................................ 251   Practice 4: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 252   Practice 4: Document evidence............................................................... 254   Practice 5: academic advising.......................................................................... 254   Practice 5: Interview evidence. ........................................................................ 255   Practice 5: Questionnaire evidence......................................................... 258   Practice 5: Document evidence............................................................... 261   GPCSR/counselor to student ratio and personal relationships......................... 263   GPCSR: Interview evidence. .................................................................. 265   GPCSR Questionnaire evidence. ............................................................ 266   Summary................................................................................................................... 267   Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations........................................... 273   Introduction............................................................................................................... 273   Summary of the Study .............................................................................................. 275   Summary of Findings and Conclusion...................................................................... 277   Overview: Social capital process features. ...................................................... 277   Overview: Results from each data source........................................................ 278   Research question 1. ........................................................................................ 279   Financial aid assistance........................................................................... 279   Forming relationships with parents......................................................... 280  
  • 15. xv xv Formal contact with parents.................................................................... 281   Conclusions- RQ 1........................................................................................... 282   Research Question 2......................................................................................... 283   College and career counseling. ............................................................... 283   Assistance filling out college applications.............................................. 284   Tutoring................................................................................................... 286   Sponsoring trips. ..................................................................................... 287   Academic advising.................................................................................. 288   Conclusions- RQ2............................................................................................ 290   Implications............................................................................................................... 294   Theoretical implications................................................................................... 294   Practical implications....................................................................................... 298   Future implications. ......................................................................................... 300   Strengths and Weaknesses ........................................................................................ 304   Recommendations..................................................................................................... 307   Recommendations for future research. ............................................................ 307   Recommendation for future research 1................................................... 307   Recommendation for future research 2................................................... 308   Recommendation for future research 3................................................... 309   Recommendation for future research 4................................................... 309   Recommendations for future practice.............................................................. 310   Recommendation for future practice 1. .................................................. 310   Recommendation for future practice 2. .................................................. 311   References....................................................................................................................... 313   Appendix A IRB Approval Letter.................................................................................. 333  
  • 16. xvi xvi Appendix B Student Questionnaire GEAR-Up College Readiness and Social Capital 335   Appendix C Questionnaire for Staff Members .............................................................. 343   Appendix D Case Study Interview Protocol.................................................................. 347   Appendix E Interview Protocol for Staff Members...................................................... 350   Appendix F Site Permission to Conduct Research ....................................................... 353   Appendix G. Informed Consent..................................................................................... 355   Appendix H. Recruitment Script................................................................................... 358   Appendix I. Example Student Questionnaire Analysis. Screen Shots of Excel Spreadsheet ......................................................................................................... 360   Appendix J Staff Questionnaire Analysis Excel Spreadsheet. Screenshot Sample..... 361   Appendix K. GEAR-Up Participant Data Sheet............................................................ 362   Appendix L Non-Participant Data Sheet ....................................................................... 363   Appendix M RQ 1 Matrix for GEAR-Up Practice Codes and Process Feature Code... 364   Appendix N Using cut and paste to explore for meaning in response relationships .... 365   Appendix O Initial Coding Table With Examples......................................................... 366   Appendix P Coding Instances for Social Capital Process Features................................ 369   Appendix Q Coding Instances for RQ 1 Practice 1 ....................................................... 371   Appendix R Coding Instances for RQ 1 Practice 2 ....................................................... 373   Appendix S Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 1........................................................ 376   Appendix T Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 2........................................................ 378   Appendix U Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 3 ....................................................... 380   Appendix V Examples of Coding Instances for RQ 2 Practice 4.................................. 382   Appendix W Examples of Coded Data for RQ 2 Practice 5.......................................... 385   Appendix X Examples for the Code GPCSR ............................................................... 387  
  • 17. xvii List of Tables Table 1. Data Collection and Research Instruments..................................................... 115   Table 2. Student Participant Demographic Characteristics ........................................... 155   Table 3. Staff Participant Characteristics....................................................................... 156   Table 4. Staff Participant Questionnaires: Summary of Case Record.......................... 157   Table 5. Student Participant Questionnaires: Summary of Case Record...................... 157   Table 6. Student Interviews: Summary of Case Record............................................... 158   Table 7. Staff Interviews: Summary of Case Record ................................................... 158   Table 8. Document Evidence: Summary of Case Record............................................ 159   Table 9. Initial Coding Table........................................................................................ 168   Table 10. Student Questionnaire Analysis: Explorations and Examples of Reflective Notes and Coding.................................................................................................... 173   Table 11. Student Interview Evidence with Initial Coding........................................... 176   Table 12. Parent Node- EF- GEAR-Up Practices Enhancing Family Social Capital (RQ 1) ............................................................................................................................. 185   Table 13. Parent Node-- EF-- Social Capital Process Features Enhancing Family Social Capital (RQ 1)......................................................................................................... 186   Table 14. Parent Node-- ES-- GEAR-UP Practices Enhancing School Social Capital (RQ 2) ..................................................................................................................... 187   Table 15. Parent Node-- ES-- Social Capital Process Features Enhancing School Social Capital..................................................................................................................... 188   Table 16. Emerging Themes RQ 1: GEAR-Up Practices............................................. 189   Table 17. Emerging Themes RQ 1: Social Capital Process Features........................... 189   Table 18. Emerging Themes (RQ 2): GEAR-Up Practices .......................................... 190   Table 19. Emerging Themes (RQ 2). Social Capital Process Features ........................ 191   Table 20. Document Analysis: Source, Data, Reflection and Coding.......................... 192   Table 21. Research Question, Reflection for Comparison to National Evaluation, Code Assigned.................................................................................................................. 200  
  • 18. xviii Table 22. RQ 1: GEAR-Up Practices, Social Capital Enhanced, and Occurrences of Codes in Triangulation Process............................................................................... 208   Table 23. RQ 2: GEAR-Up Practices, Social Capital Enhanced, and Occurrences of Codes in Triangulation Process............................................................................... 209   Table 24. RQ Alignment to Social Capital and Code Occurrences.............................. 215   Table 25. RQ 1: Emerging Practices, Social Capital Process Features Enhanced, Code Occurrences............................................................................................................. 223   Table 26. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 3: Formal Contact with Parents, Data Examples. 230   Table 27. RQ 2: Emerging Practices, Social Capital Process Features Enhanced, Code Occurrences............................................................................................................. 233   Table 28. Participant Postsecondary Enrollment and ACT Scores............................... 241   Table 29. FAFSA High School Completion Rate......................................................... 246   Table 30. Comparing Academic Outcomes: GEAR-Up Participants and Non- Participants for College Ready Scores on Standardized Test and College Entrance Testing..................................................................................................................... 262   Table 31. Comparing Academic Outcomes of GEAR-Up Participants and Non- Participants for Rigor of Course Selection ............................................................. 263   Table 32. Examples for the Code GPSCR- Counselor to Student Ratio and Personal Relationships........................................................................................................... 265   Table 33. Dominant themes for Social Capital Enhanced by the Emerging GEAR-Up practices .................................................................................................................. 278   Table 34. Emerging GEAR-UP practices in order of significance............................... 279   Table 35. Practical Implications for Enhancing Family Social Capital........................ 299   Table 36. Practical Implications for Enhancing School Social Capital........................ 300   Table 37. Initial Coding Table...................................................................................... 366   Table 38. Social Capital Process Feature Codes with Examples of Coded Data ......... 369   Table 39. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 1, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 371   Table 40. RQ 1: Emerging Practice 2, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 373  
  • 19. xix xix Table 41. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 1, Social Capital Process Features, Examples of Coded Data.............................................................................................................. 376   Table 42. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 2 (Assistance Filling Out College Applications, Enhanced Social Capital ......................................................................................... 378   Table 43. Emerging Practice 3: Tutoring and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features ................................................................................................................................. 380   Table 44. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 4, Sponsoring Trips and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features...................................................................................................... 382   Table 45. RQ 2: Emerging Practice 5, Academic Advising and Enhanced Social Capital Process Features...................................................................................................... 385   Table 46. Examples for the Code GPCSR- Counselor to Student Ratio and Personal Relationships........................................................................................................... 387  
  • 20. xx xx List of Figures Figure 1. GEAR-Up program general characteristics....................................................... 34   Figure 2. Convergence of evidence from data sources to support validity..................... 132   Figure 3. Student questionnaire responses item 49......................................................... 224   Figure 4. Student questionnaire responses item 24......................................................... 225   Figure 5. Staff participant questionnaire responses to amount of time spent on each activity..................................................................................................................... 237   Figure 6. GEAR-Up student questionnaire responses 5a-5g. ......................................... 237    
  • 21. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Introduction An emphasis on equitable college and postsecondary access for all students has been placed on America’s schools (Contreras, 2011). The existing empirical literature that investigated postsecondary pursuits of disadvantaged students consistently supported that students who lived in poverty and/or were members of an ethnic minority that had capabilities similar to their more advantaged peers were less likely to attend college due to a deficit in the social capital that was necessary to plan for and attain postsecondary education (Bryan, Moore-Thomas, Day-Vines, & Holcomb-McCoy, 2011; Frempong, Ma, & Mensah, 2012). The Hispanic population was one of the fastest growing populations in the United States, and the least likely to prepare for and pursue education after high school (Contreras, 2011). This study investigated which of the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) influenced the postsecondary decisions of rural Hispanic youth. Social capital was defined as capital that was inherent within an individual’s relationships (Coleman, 1990). In this investigation, social capital was explored in two realms, family and school. The social capital existing in families and schools involved the relationships, beliefs, conversations, expectations, and life events that influenced decision-making of youth (Carolan-Silva &Reyes, 2013; Wooley, Kol, & Bowen, 2009). For example, a student who was raised to believe that it was his or her duty to work and contribute to the family budget may automatically envision going directly to the workforce and never consider postsecondary education based on social capital influences (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013).
  • 22. 2 The college admissions process has evolved into a competitive and complex process. Previous research indicated the social capital needed to aspire to postsecondary education often began in middle school (Cabrera et al., 2006). The GEAR-Up program was designed to support preparation and eventual enrollment in postsecondary education for disadvantaged students from 7th Grade throughout their high school graduation (Cates & Schaefle, 2011). This study investigated a GEAR-Up college readiness program that was implemented in a predominantly Hispanic rural school in the panhandle of Texas. For purposes of this study, a college readiness program was a federal or state governed program that was designed for the purpose of increasing the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enroll in postsecondary education (Cates & Schaefle, 2011). Students who had parents that did not attend some form of postsecondary education were at a disadvantage in gaining the social capital that comes more readily to their peers with parents who have navigated the process of enrolling in an institution of higher education (Bryan et al., 2011). Many times these students were from minority, low socioeconomic, or rural settings; or from a combination of these backgrounds (Byun, Meece, Irvin, Hutchins, 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006; Irvin, Meece, Byun, Farmer, & Hutchins, 2011). Social capital theory provided the framework of reference for this investigation that sought to contribute to the knowledge needed for developing more equitable access to postsecondary opportunities. It was not only important to the Hispanic individuals and their families, but also to the future of rural areas and the larger society for this rapidly growing population to reach their full potential.
  • 23. 3 This qualitative case study investigated how the GEAR-Up college readiness program influenced social capital that impacted postsecondary decisions for rural Hispanic students who participated in the program for the recommended entire six-year period. Data was collected from students and staff members that participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. Approximately 77% of the graduating class of 2013 received GEAR-Up services for the entire six-year period. A large percentage of graduates participating in the program and collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, and documentation created potential for a robust investigation. Including data from three sources: questionnaires, interviews, and documents, allowed for triangulation, a process of validating data through multiple sources to determine if the different methods of data collection produced similar results across converging lines of inquiry (Yin, 2013). Data collection and analysis is thoroughly described in Chapter 3. The remainder of Chapter one will include a brief background of the study, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, research questions, a discussion concerning the advancement of scientific knowledge, significance of the study, the rationale for the methodology, nature of the research design, definition of terms, assumptions, limitations and delimitations, and a summary and description of organization for the remainder of the study. Background of the Study In 1900, the College Examination Board was created to establish uniform guidelines for college admission. The turn of the century brought about change in education to direct high school curriculum toward a differentiated instruction according to the most likely future for the student, thus creating high expectations for some and low
  • 24. 4 expectations for others. This focus on differentiation led to disparity between whites and ethnic minorities in educational opportunity (Ladson-Billings, 2007). In 1958, in response to the Russian release of Sputnik, more funding was granted to higher education institutions to increase competitiveness of America’s college graduates in mathematics, science, and foreign languages (Powell, 2007). In 1960 the federal government responded with the first federally funded college readiness program known as TRIO (Royster, Gross, & Hochbein, 2015). Since that time, there have been numerous programs, such as Quantum Opportunities, Upward Bound, Talent Search, and GEAR-Up, that were funded by the federal government, higher education institutions, and interested private philanthropists, and targeted a smoother transition to higher education for students from disadvantaged backgrounds (Thurston, 2009). In 1989 under President George H.W. Bush, governors participated in a national summit on education to raise the standards in academics in order to be globally competitive (Smylie, 1997). One of the resulting college readiness initiatives from that summit was GEAR-Up. In 1998, the GEAR-Up college readiness program was developed (United States Department of Education, 2014). GEAR-Up was one of several college readiness initiatives for underrepresented student populations that targeted a broad population of students, rather than a population that was chosen based on merit. The students and staff members targeted for the sample population in this investigation were participants in the GEAR-Up program in a rural Texas high school from 2008-2013. GEAR-Up program involvement had the potential to facilitate the social capital necessary for enrolling in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Bryan et al., 2012; Meyka, 2013). The students in the targeted sample population
  • 25. 5 were Hispanic students that had participated in the GEAR-Up program from 7th grade throughout graduation from high school in 2013. Even though important strides had been made in closing the achievement gap between whites and other disadvantaged populations for receiving a high school diploma, the gap continued to exist regarding access to and degree completion in higher education (Aud et al., 2013). Hispanic students were still less likely to acquire an advanced degree than white students (Aud et al., 2013). It was important to continue to investigate what was effective in guiding disadvantaged students with equal potential to their more advantaged peers to become all that they can be through pursuit of higher education. The sample population for this investigation was students of Hispanic ethnicity who graduated from a rural school in Texas. In the late 1970’s Hispanics made up less than two percent of the student population in America (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). At the time of this investigation, Hispanics made up approximately one- sixth of the total student population in America (Aud et al., 2013). The postsecondary achievement gap between Hispanics and Whites continued to widen due to the rapid population growth among Hispanics and the social capital deficits characteristic of Hispanic families regarding access to and enrollment in postsecondary education (Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). Rural environments were also found to contribute to deficits in the social capital necessary to make a decision to attend postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Byun et al., 2012). Isolation of some rural communities inhibited some students from having experiences, such as visits to college campuses that could facilitate a vision and aspiration for postsecondary education (Irvin et al., 2011).
  • 26. 6 Empirical literature investigating GEAR-Up and similar programs targeting disadvantaged populations of students for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of enrollment and persistence in postsecondary education indicated social capital process features such as, parental involvement, relationships with counselors and teachers, access to information about postsecondary education, academic advising, and parental expectation to attend postsecondary institutions, as instrumental in the decision-making processes for disadvantaged students regarding postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Bernhardt, 2013; Bryan et al., 2011). This investigation added to the existing knowledge regarding how the GEAR-Up program influenced the postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged Hispanic students from a rural high school in Texas. Problem Statement It was not known how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program at a rural school facilitated the social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. Studies by Byun et al. (2012) and Clark, Ponjuan, Orrock, Wilson, and Flores (2013), recommended that further research was needed regarding social capital process features and the needs of rural Hispanic students. “An important objective for future rural research is to examine the social processes by which ethnicity shapes rural youth’s future.” (Byun et al., 2012, p.13). Clark et al. (2013) conducted a study investigating the social influences surrounding Hispanic students and their educational attitudes, choices, and persistence, and found that services such as counseling, relationships with caring adults, mentoring, family and cultural support provided by the school and communication about postsecondary opportunities played an important role in Hispanic choices concerning
  • 27. 7 postsecondary education. The GEAR-Up program experienced by the participants in this study facilitated the influences supported by Clark et al., (2013) as conducive to creating aspirations in disadvantaged populations for postsecondary education. This investigation focused on which of the practices provided by this particular GEAR-Up program provided to rural Hispanic students influenced postsecondary decisions. The targeted population for this investigation was graduates from a rural high school in Texas consisting of 83.5% Hispanic students. Over half (approximately 190) of the graduating class of 245 participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008 throughout graduation from high school in 2013 facilitating an opportunity for this investigation to contribute to the existing empirical literature supporting the connection between social capital and postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Engberg and Allen (2011) emphasized the importance of equitable access to postsecondary opportunities for individuals and society and recommended further research to discover more about the multi-faceted processes that determine whether or not a student will pursue higher education and the involvement of social capital in that decision making process. This investigation attempted to fill existing gaps in the literature and contribute to solving the achievement gap problem in access to postsecondary education by conducting an investigation focused on the previously stated problem statement. College readiness programs such as GEAR-Up were designed to increase the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enter and succeed in postsecondary education (Thurston, 2009). State and federally funded college readiness programs such as GEAR-Up usually included early intervention to raise the academic expectations of disadvantaged youth and
  • 28. 8 their families and aimed to facilitate social capital process features. Examples of social capital features included: parental expectation for a child to attend college and involvement with school, student and parent relationships with school counselors, interactions with college/military representatives, access to information about college such as college publications and websites, academic and test preparation, and peer expectations (Barnett et al., 2012; Byun et al., 2012). As referenced in Byun et al. (2012) and Clark et al. (2013), further research was needed to investigate social capital as it related to postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged students. This study advanced what was currently understood about how practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program compensated for social capital deficits in the process features conducive to aspiring to and succeeding in postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore how students and staff members in a rural school perceived how long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital, as well as how that social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. For the purpose of this study, social capital was examined in two realms, family social capital and school social capital. Family social capital was defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Byun et al., 2012; Coleman, 1990). School social capital was defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and
  • 29. 9 relationships with teachers and counselors that guided the student in postsecondary pursuits (Byun et al. 2012). Former students who were in the GEAR-Up cohort in a rural Texas school began receiving services from GEAR-Up in the 7th grade and continued with those services through graduation from high school in 2013. Students who participated during the entire six-year period and completed high school in 2013 were contacted by gaining permission from the district to retrieve permanent address information for the students from historical data within the student information system. This population consisted of a group of students who were currently attending postsecondary education and a group of students who chose not to enroll in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school. GEAR-Up staff members were also asked to participate in the data collection process. Questionnaires were distributed to a larger pool of student and staff participants from the target population described in detail in Chapter 3. Data from the questionnaires was used for triangulation purposes as well as for identifying participants for the interviews. Triangulation is a strategy for creating construct validity in case studies by collecting information from several sources while aiming at producing converging evidence for the phenomenon being investigated (Yin, 2013). The data from the interviews and questionnaires were recorded and analyzed to determine themes and similarities that indicated answers to the research questions. Documents were reviewed to further confirm or challenge the indications of the questionnaire and interview data collection. Qualitative data obtained through the case study design was assessed to determine the GEAR-Up program practices that contributed
  • 30. 10 to the enhancement of family and school social capital that was necessary for successful transition to postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Results from this qualitative case study contributed to the growing field of knowledge concerning the phenomena of social capital as a venue for closing the postsecondary achievement gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students with regard to postsecondary education (Bryan et al., 2011; Byun et. al., 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006; Irvin et al., 2011). Research Questions The research questions that guided this study targeted a gap in current literature informing what was known about assisting rural Hispanic students to gain the social capital necessary to envision and enroll in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school. Disparities continued to exist between rural and non-rural students in aspirations and enrollment (Byun et al., 2012). There was a lack of evidence that targeted actual enrollment in postsecondary education rather than only aspiring to attend (Bernhardt, 2013; Dyce, Alboid, & Long, 2012). Additional existing gaps in the literature reviewed for this study included the lack of empirical college readiness studies targeting rural students, lack of empirical evidence for long-term rather than short-term participation in the GEAR-Up college readiness program, and a lack of qualitative work that explored how practices and services provided by college readiness programs such as GEAR-Up influenced social capital processes important to postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged youth (Byun et al., 2012; Cabrera et al., 2006). Byun et al. (2012) reported that relatively little research had been conducted with rural populations concerning the interaction of social capital and educational achievement. Cabrera et al. (2006) reported that effects of college readiness programs
  • 31. 11 may be cumulative and that current research existed for populations that had participated only for small amounts of time. More research was needed for longer period of participation to reveal if more profound results manifested through longer participation in the program. Investigating the research questions through the perspective of the sample population in this study including a rural population with long-term participation and actual enrollment in postsecondary education contributed to the existing gaps in the literature described in the previous paragraph. The current study included one overarching question that guided the study and two research questions that focused the investigation specifically on each realm of social capital (family and school) described in the previous section. The research questions are presented below: Overarching Question: Which of the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program facilitated social capital and how did that social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education? R1: How did students and staff members perceive that the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced family social capital and how did that family social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education? R2: How did students and staff members perceive that the practices and services provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced school social capital, and how did that school social capital influence Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education?
  • 32. 12 Advancing Scientific Knowledge The theoretical foundation for this study was social capital theory (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1990; Putnam, 2000, 2002). French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu and American sociologist James Coleman were accredited with the establishment of the theoretical framework of social capital (Portes, 1998). The concept of social capital as supported by Bourdieu and Coleman could be summarized as the benefits afforded to persons and families from their social connections. Robert Putnam (2000, 2002), a political scientist, also contributed to the development of social capital theory by including the influence of social capital on larger groups within society, such as cities and countries. More recent research has contributed to social capital theory as it related to educational aspirations and academic achievement (Bryan et al., 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013; James, Busher, & Suttill, 2015). The current research study advanced the development of social capital theory by focusing on a population of students that were from a rural area and of Hispanic ethnicity, two characteristics associated with lower levels of academic achievement (Irvin et al., 2011; Shapiro, Meschede, & Osoro, 2013). Answers to the research questions from this population consisting of rural Hispanic students informed the development of social capital theory as it related to the transition to postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Family social capital, defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Coleman, 1990) were explored through investigating the first research question (RQ 1) that was focused on discovering how the students and staff
  • 33. 13 members perceived that the practices and services provided through long term participation in the GEAR-Up program enhanced family social capital and how that family social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. School social capital, defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and relationships with teachers and counselors (Byun et al., 2012) was explored through investigating the second research question (RQ 2) that was focused on discovering how the students and staff members perceived that the practices and serviced provided by the GEAR-Up program enhanced school social capital and how that school social capital influenced Hispanic students to enroll in postsecondary education. This study advanced what was known about how family and school social capital could be influenced by the GEAR-Up practices to compensate for social disadvantages that rural Hispanic students face, such as lack of access to information about college or low parental expectation and knowledge of the college application process (Bryan et al., 2011; Byun et al., 2012). Significance of the Study A substantial amount of empirical literature suggested that social capital shaped educational goals and accomplishments for individuals (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). This study, involving a unique population of students that were both Hispanic and who obtained a high school diploma in a rural setting, added to the knowledge base for building programs that could benefit the students who had these distinct social capital challenges documented in the literature as a result of rural locations and Hispanic ethnicity (Byun et al., 2012; Conclusions and Implications,
  • 34. 14 2013). Empirical studies investigating a population of students who had the simultaneous challenges that existed for rural Hispanic students in the process of aspiring to and enrolling in postsecondary institutions were scant in the body of research available on postsecondary attainment of disadvantaged students. The research in this study contributed information that could be instrumental in closing the gap in understanding how the GEAR-Up program enhanced family and school social capital process features that facilitated enrollment in postsecondary education for rural Hispanic students. Addressing the issues that existed for access to postsecondary opportunities for rural Hispanic students could impact and add value to rural communities by advancing knowledge that could build stronger educational foundations and contributions of upcoming members in rural communities, as well as increasing the quality of life for the Hispanic population in America (Engberg & Allen, 2011; Conclusions and Implications, 2013). This study could lead to important information for designing practical applications that enhance college readiness programs for rural at-risk youth. This investigation targeted rural Hispanic students with long-term participation in the GEAR-Up program seeking answers to the research questions that targeted which aspects of the GEAR-Up program were instrumental in addressing the individual needs of these students. The purpose was to find out how GEAR-Up practices enhanced awareness and aspirations for postsecondary opportunities that resulted in actual enrollment in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school for rural Hispanic students. Rationale for Methodology The methodology chosen for the research in this study was a qualitative case study using questionnaires, interviews, and documents. Qualitative investigations
  • 35. 15 facilitated a structured subjective technique used to explore a phenomenon through describing life experiences of individuals and giving them meaning (Merriam, 2009). This qualitative case study was about understanding the meanings individuals fabricate from interactions within society in order to assist with their social lives (Sallee, 2012). The original research design for this investigation was a quantitative study comparing the academic performance of the GEAR-Up cohort of students to 2012 graduates that did not receive GEAR-Up services. Quantitative research is a method of explaining phenomena through the use of numerical data and mathematical based methods of analysis (Keselman, Lix, & Keselman, 2011). In reviewing the literature for GEAR-Up and other college readiness initiatives, the literature on college readiness programs seemed to be replete with studies that used quantitative numerical methodologies to evaluate and investigate GEAR-Up and other college readiness programs (Cabrera et al., 2006; Engberg & Wolniak, 2014; Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). Nunez and Dongbin (2012) conducted a quantitative study that used a multilevel statistical framework to investigate the role of student, school, and state level characteristics as influences on Hispanic students’ college enrollment patterns, and recommended that future studies address wider range of psychological, social, and cultural factors that may be contributing to the postsecondary achievement gap for Hispanic students. This qualitative case study addressed some of the social factors recommended by Nunez and Dongbin (2012). Quantitative research on college readiness programs confirmed that college readiness programs had a positive effect on grades, rigorous coursework, and performance on standardized tests (Cabrera et al., 2006; Nunez & Dongbin, 2012). The
  • 36. 16 unanswered questions were concerning how programs such as GEAR-Up influenced postsecondary decisions of disadvantaged youth. This qualitative case study contributed to the unanswered questions about how GEAR-Up influenced postsecondary decisions by discovering how the student and staff participants perceived that the practices and services provided by GEAR-Up interacted with social capital to influence postsecondary decisions of rural Hispanic students with long term participation in the GEAR-Up program in a rural district in Texas. Questions investigating how programs and initiatives have influence are best answered by a qualitative case study approach (Yin, 2013). Merriam and Tisdell (2015) define qualitative research as, “an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.” (p.15). This investigation added to the growing body of research that targeted how social capital theory and college readiness programs played a role in the postsecondary choices of disadvantaged youth. Nature of the Research Design for the Study Qualitative investigations seek to unravel the meaning of social contexts and an individual’s perception and constructs that develop as a result of interactions with social influences and experiences (Merriam, 2009). For purposes of this study, the participants’ viewpoints regarding the social context provided through the GEAR-Up program and the influence of the specific components available within the GEAR-Up context upon enrollment or non-enrollment in postsecondary education were explored through questionnaires, interviews, and review of relevant documents. There are different
  • 37. 17 methods of study within qualitative research, each having advantages and disadvantages contingent upon the type of research question, the control the researcher has over behavioral influences, and the focus on contemporary rather than historical phenomena (Yin, 2013). Among the different methods of qualitative research are case studies, experiments, and surveys (Yin, 2013). Experiments and surveys are effective methods for conducting explanatory investigations with the goal being to develop hypotheses and concepts for further research (Yin, 2013). Experiments are investigations in which the researcher exerts control over the variables in the study with the purpose of answering “what” questions that explore the outcomes of a particular phenomenon (Yin, 2013). In experimental studies, the investigator is able to manipulate behavior directly, precisely and systematically (Yin, 2013). In this investigation, the researcher did not manipulate behaviors of the sample population; therefore an experimental study was not appropriate. Survey studies are designed to investigate and specify the outcomes of a phenomenon or experience answering “What?” questions regarding those experiences (Yin, 2013). In this study, the research questions were not concerned with answers to “What?” questions that enumerated the outcomes of participation in the GEAR-Up program. Rather, this investigation sought to answer “How?” questions regarding which of the GEAR-Up program practices and services enhanced the social capital process features that influenced the decisions of rural Hispanic youth to enroll postsecondary education. This type of investigation was of an exploratory rather than explanatory nature as in experiments and surveys. Exploratory investigations such as the current study could lead to the use of a case study design because the case study is more favorable for examining contemporary events when the relevant behaviors cannot be manipulated (Yin,
  • 38. 18 2013). The case study method allowed for the flexibility needed to investigate a wide range of topics and possibilities with the participants for the purpose of accurately answering the research questions that probe how the GEAR-Up program enhanced the family and school social capital process features that increased the likelihood of postsecondary enrollment and persistence for rural Hispanic youth. Merriam (2009) argued that case studies were qualitative work that involved bounded phenomena such as a program, event, person, process, institution, or social group. In this investigation the bounded phenomena lies in participation in the GEAR-Up program and the social capital process features that were enhanced by that participation. Case studies were appropriate when the sample sizes were small (Yin, 2013). The sample size for this study consisted of 26 participants. The sample population included both staff members and students from the GEAR-Up program in a rural Texas panhandle high school. Twenty-one of the 26 participants in the sample population for this study were selected from the larger population of 245 students in the graduating Class of 2013. Out of those 245 students, approximately 139 Hispanic students participated in the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. A recruitment script and informed consent was mailed to the 139 Hispanic students who were likely to have participated in the GEAR-Up program. A questionnaire (Appendix B) was mailed or emailed to 32 Hispanic students who returned the informed consent. Out of the 32 students who returned the informed consents, 21 of them also returned the questionnaire. Ten of those 21 Hispanic students participated in the interviews. The other five participants in the sample population were GEAR-Up staff members who returned the informed consent and questionnaire and indicated willingness to participate in the interviews. Consequently, 21 former students returned the
  • 39. 19 questionnaire and 10 of those 21 participated in the interviews. Five former staff members completed the questionnaire and also participated in the interview. In total, there were 26 questionnaires and fifteen interviews included in the questionnaire and interview data. Data from the questionnaires was analyzed as part of the triangulation process for validating the findings from the study. The sample population also included GEAR-Up staff members from this particular high school that served in any capacity during the tenure of the GEAR-Up program from 2008-2013. Twelve staff members were contacted by phone or email and asked to participate in the study. A recruitment script and informed consent were mailed or emailed to the seven participants who indicated a willingness to participate in the study. Five staff participants returned the questionnaire (Appendix C) and participated in the interview (Appendix E). Data from the questionnaires were analyzed as part of the triangulation process for validating the findings from this study. This qualitative case study utilized questionnaires, interviewing, and documents as data collection instruments. The questionnaires (Appendices B & C) were similar to the interview protocols (Appendices D & E) to allow for thematically categorizing and comparing data across multiple data sources. Interviewing in qualitative research allows the researcher the flexibility to explore participant views based on emerging information during the interview in order to collect worthwhile data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Yin (2013) asserted that the interview was one of the most important sources of case study information because interviews that guided conversations rather than presented structured
  • 40. 20 queries were more fluid than rigid and allowed for more flexibility in discovery of pertinent data. The three data sources, questionnaires, interviews and documents informed the research questions by soliciting data from the participants that was analyzed to discover converging themes from the three data sources. The items on the questionnaires (Appendices A & B) and interview protocols (Appendices D & C) targeted either RQ 1 or RQ 2 as outlined in further detail in Chapter 3 (Table 1). Document evidence included national evaluations of college readiness programs, statistical reports from educational agencies, and records from the rural school the participants attended including transcripts, test score rosters and parental involvement records. These documents informed the research questions by providing comparative data analysis between the GEAR-Up program involving the participants and national college readiness programs as well as comparative analysis between academic achievement of the participants receiving GEAR-Up services and a similar group of students from the same high school that did not receive GEAR-Up services. Yin (2013) encouraged researchers to view the literature review not as a source solely to determine answers about what was known about a matter, but to review the literature to develop more insightful questions about the subject matter. Two interview protocols (Appendices C & D) based on the review of the literature and the significant data that pertained to the perspective of the participant were followed. One interview protocol was for the students who participated in the GEAR-Up program (see Appendix D) and the other protocol (see Appendix E) was for staff members that served in the GEAR-Up program. Interviews were audiotaped to allow for transcription and reflection
  • 41. 21 of participant reactions to the interviews. The transcriptions and reflections were kept as part of the case study record and thematically coded in the data analysis phase of the investigation. Another source of information that was used to validate and expand the data was the use of documents relevant to the study such as student transcripts, national evaluations of GEAR-Up and other college readiness programs, and federal and state statistical reports, and standardized testing rosters. Through the collection of data through three different sources, the data for this investigation was triangulated, meaning the results of the study were more compelling and accurate because the data was based on several different sources of information revealing converging lines of inquiry (Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2013). Definition of Terms The operational definitions of terms used in this study are listed below for the purpose of clarity in comprehension and consistency of meaning throughout the study. Achievement gap. According to the United States Department of Education, achievement gaps reflect differences in academic performance between subgroups of students and their peers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). For purposes of this study the achievement gap between whites and Hispanic students in enrolling in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school was examined. College Readiness Program. For purposes of this study a college readiness program was a federally or state governed program that was designed for the purpose of increasing the number of disadvantaged students who were prepared to enroll in and persist in postsecondary education (Thurston, 2009).
  • 42. 22 Disadvantaged student. A disadvantaged student was one who came from an environment that had inhibited the individual from obtaining the knowledge, skill, and abilities required to enroll in and graduate from a school (Health Resources and Services Administration, 2012). The population for this investigation was considered disadvantaged due to Hispanic ethnicity, rural location, and low-income factors (Byun et al., 2012; Aud et al., 2013). First generation student. A student whose parents’ highest level of education is a high school diploma or less (Ward, Siegel, & Zebulin, 2012). GEAR-Up. The Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs initiative was a federal P-16 program intended for students to receive program services for six years, 7th grade through high school graduation. The program was designed to heighten college awareness and readiness for disadvantaged populations of students. For purposes of this study, the operational definition of GEAR-Up was the college awareness program offered to students who graduated in the Class of 2013 from a rural school in the panhandle of Texas that was awarded the GEAR-Up grant. The sample population in this investigation participated in the GEAR-Up program from 7th grade through high school graduation in 2013 (Texas Education Agency, 2014). Habitus. Habitus was an individual’s constitution that influenced the actions that individual takes. Habitus can be exuded through life choices and physical characteristics such as the way one dresses, carries one’s self, walks or speaks. Habitus was created by an individual’s place in a social structure (Gaddis, 2013). The operational definition of habitus for this investigation was influences on an individual’s educational aspirations due to perceptions acquired through one’s position in the immediate surrounding social
  • 43. 23 structure, that cause the belief that postsecondary education either is or is not a possibility based on messages received through one’s habitus. Hispanic. From the Census Report, 2012, Hispanic was defined as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Operationally in this study, Hispanic students were chosen based on Hispanic ethnicity indicated within the Hereford High School Student Informational System for 2013. Postsecondary education. Postsecondary Education was defined as “an academic, vocational, technical, home study, business, professional, or other school, college, or university or other organization or person offering educational services (primarily to persons who have completed or terminated their secondary education or who are beyond the age of compulsory school attendance) for attainment of educational, professional, or vocational objectives.” (National Center for Education Statistics, 1981, p. 3). The operational definition for postsecondary education in this study was enrolling in a university, trade or technical school or community college the summer or fall semester after graduating from high school in 2013. Process features. Various attributes of family and school social capital important in predicting educational aspirations for rural students. Some examples include: • Parental expectation for a child to attend college (Byun et al., 2012) • Parental Involvement with School (Altschul, 2011; Byun et al., 2012) • Relationships with Counselors (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011; Hoy, 2012) • Interactions with college/military representatives (Byun et al., 2012) • Access to information about college such as college publications and websites (Byun et al., 2012; Bryan et al., 2011) • Academic/Test Preparation (Byun et al., 2012; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2011) • Peer expectations (Byun et al., 2012).
  • 44. 24 Rural. Rural areas were defined as all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Operationally for this investigation, Hereford High School students were considered as living in a rural area based on the urban-centric local codes by the U.S. Census Bureau for the National Center for Education Statistics (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Social capital. Social Capital was defined as capital that was inherent within an individual’s relationships (Coleman, 1990). For operational purposes in this investigation social capital was investigated in two different realms: Family social capital was defined as relationships with family members that influenced a student’s decision to pursue higher education, such as parental expectations for postsecondary education (Coleman, 1990). School social capital was defined as relationships and opportunities within the school environment that guided and equipped students to enroll in postsecondary education, such as parental involvement and relationships with teachers and counselors that guided the student in postsecondary pursuits (Byun et al., 2012). Social justice. A concept advocating that all people are equally valuable and deserved to live in a fair and democratic society that provided equal opportunities for all (Hursh & Martina, 2014). For operational purposes in this study social justice for postsecondary education referred to viewing students from disadvantaged backgrounds with the same potential as their peers for postsecondary education. Socioeconomic status (SES). Socioeconomic status was commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual or group. It was often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. Socioeconomic status
  • 45. 25 often revealed inequities in access to resources, plus issues related to privilege, power and control (American Psychological Association, 2013). Triangulation. The triangulation of data occurred when various methods are used to gather qualitative data. Data triangulation validated the data and research by cross verifying the same information creating solid validity and reliability in the data (Yin, 2013). Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations Assumptions. The first assumption for this investigation was that permission would be received from a rural district in Texas to access contact information for the GEAR-Up participants through the district student information system. The second assumption was that it would be possible to locate and gain the agreement of participation from approximately 50 members of the desired sample population. It was also methodologically assumed that interview participants would respond honestly causing the results of this study to reflect accurate and honest perceptions of students who were exposed to the GEAR-Up program. This assumption was made because the participant’s anonymity and confidentiality was protected providing a secure environment for promoting a comfortable rapport that encouraged sincerity and honesty between the participants and the interviewer. It was theoretically assumed that individuals in disadvantaged circumstances could be enlightened and encouraged to envision possibilities beyond the realm of their current context. This assumption was derived from the basic desire within human nature to thrive and experience comfort in life. This derivation was based on self-determination
  • 46. 26 theory that postulated human motivation stemmed from inherent needs for accomplishment and autonomy (Dettweiler, 2015). Delimitations and limitations. The current study was delimited to Hispanic graduates from one rural high school in the panhandle of Texas. This delimitation hindered generalizability of results to other disadvantaged ethnicities or disadvantaged individuals from rural areas with different nuances than a rural setting in Texas. Another limitation was the perceptions and understanding of the English interview with Hispanic students who predominantly speak English as a second language, however because each of the participants completed high school in Texas, a state that requires successful completion of exit level tests given in English, it was assumed that there would be adequate communication so that this limitation was not detrimental to the findings of the investigation. Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study In Chapter 1 a need for investigating programs such as GEAR-Up college readiness that attempted to level the playing field for all students regarding educational opportunities has been presented. Legislators and practitioners were in need of relevant data to inform social capital theory for the purpose of allowing for more equitable educational opportunities in America (Contreras, 2011). If the United States of America desires to stay at the forefront of all nations educationally, socially, and economically, it was imperative that the rapidly growing populations of Hispanic youth be afforded opportunities to enroll in and succeed in postsecondary education (Engberg & Allen, 2011). By qualitatively investigating solutions for the problem statement through the research questions for this investigation, social capital theory was enhanced as well as the
  • 47. 27 knowledge base for what was known about assisting Hispanic students from a rural area in transitioning to postsecondary pursuits. In the next chapter, a comprehensive literature review of current research regarding college readiness and current college readiness practices and initiatives will be presented. The literature review also includes an in depth review of both seminal and current research for social capital theory, the theoretical framework for this study. Chapter 3 will describe the methodology, research design, and procedures for this investigation. Chapter 4 will detail how the data was analyzed and provides both a written and graphic summary of the results. Chapter 5 will be an interpretation and discussion of the results, as it related to the existing body of research pertaining to the dissertation topic.
  • 48. 28 Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem Orientation to the literature. This chapter will provide a description of the literature review process followed by a background section discussing the historical overview and the evolvement of the gap in postsecondary achievement as well as gaps in the literature that led to the problem statement and research questions for this investigation. The theoretical foundation for the study, social capital theory, will be presented with a discussion of the foundational theory, seminal sources, concepts in social capital theory, history of social capital theory, and social capital theory in more current literature. A summary of prevalent methodologies in the empirical literature reviewed is presented followed by a discussion of the instrumentation chosen for the current study. The review of the literature follows instrumentation section. The review of literature has three main sections and a conclusion: 1) Effects of College Readiness Programs 2) Factors that Lead to Postsecondary Education, and 3) The Importance of the High School Context. Within the first section of the review of literature discussing the effects of college readiness programs, findings relative to differences in the targeted populations will be discussed describing the theme emerging from a review of the literature on effects of college readiness programs. The second section of the literature review synthesizes and summarizes the current empirical literature on factors that lead to postsecondary education. Among these factors supported by empirical work were rigorous academic choices in high school (Adelman, 1999, 2006), college ready scores on standardized (Royster et al., 2015), positive relationships (Reddick et al., 2011), and enrollment in postsecondary education upon graduation from high school (Roderick
  • 49. 29 et al., 2011). The third section of the literature review is a synthesis of an emerging theme concerning the importance of the high school context, especially pertaining to rural Hispanic students and the deficit in social capital that could be compensated through education and communities. Three empirical articles are reviewed in this section (Bryan et al., 2012; Hill; 2008; Engberg & Wolniak, 2010). This section concludes with a summary analyzing the importance of the high school context based on empirical evidence. Finally, the literature review closes with a summary reviewing the themes and findings from the current literature on college readiness programs and the relationship to social capital theory. Description of literature review process. A substantial number of databases were utilized to conduct a thorough investigation of the literature available relevant to college readiness indicators and programs and social capital theory as it related to educational attainment. The databases included: Education Research Complete, ERIC (EBSCO), Omnifile Full Text Select (Education), ProQuest Educational Journals, Academic Search Complete, ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis, ProQuest The Humanities and Social Sciences, ProQuest Central, PsychArticles, and PsychInfo. The search parameters were limited to scholarly and peer reviewed material. Research based books written by knowledgeable authors in the area of postsecondary achievement for disadvantaged students and social capital theory were also included as resources. Search terms included relevant terminology including but not limited to, “postsecondary education”, “postsecondary achievement gap”, “hispanic education”, “rural education”, “social capital theory”, “habitus”, and “college readiness”.
  • 50. 30 For this review, 88 empirical articles were read and evaluated in search of themes and connections within the literature on social capital theory and access to postsecondary education. Three books were reviewed as seminal sources for social capital theory. Five additional books were included with more current information regarding barriers to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students and social capital theory. Twenty research reports relating to GEAR-Up and access to postsecondary education were analyzed and information was included in the review when relevant. One recent dissertation was consulted revealing more about what is already known and what gaps still existed for further research. Background to the problem. The lack of equitable opportunities in education has been a concern for educators and government officials from as early as 1891 (Kain & Singleton, 1996). In response to that concern, the College Examination Board was created in the 1900’s to ensure that higher educational opportunities were equitable for all (Kain & Singleton, 1996). Ladson-Billings (2007) conducted extensive research on this achievement gap in America and advocated that the achievement gap began with the freedmen’s schools that trained African-Americans as servants and crossed over into the unspoken educational expectations and biases for other groups of minority and disadvantaged populations. Social capital theory offered explanation for the underlying reasons behind the inequality in educational opportunities. Social capital theory research had shown that there were equally capable individuals in these types of settings that could be successful in postsecondary education if provided with quality social capital networks (McDonough, 2005; Putnam, 2000). At the time of this investigation, the Hispanic population was the
  • 51. 31 fastest growing population within the United States, yet they also had the lowest percentage of high school graduates that attended postsecondary education (Altschul, 2011; Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). Hispanic student’s parental knowledge of the college-going process and valuing education over employment had a significant effect on the choices of Hispanic students concerning postsecondary enrollment (Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013). This cause-effect relationship indicated a possible connection to the habitus concept in social capital theory. Habitus referred to an individual’s environment and the beliefs that come about consciously and unconsciously as a result of that environment (Coleman, 1990). Using social capital theory and the habitus concept, this investigation was important in adding to the body of knowledge concerning access to postsecondary education and social capital theory. The habitus of Hispanic students could be less conducive to access to postsecondary education than those of other ethnicities (Altschul, 2011). This deficit in the habitus of the Hispanic culture was confirmed in Clark et al.’s (2013) qualitative phenomenological study investigating the educational support for and aspirations of Latino male students and postsecondary opportunities. Phenomenology was defined as the study of life experiences and consequent meanings (Clark et al., 2013). The results from the Clark et al. (2013) study indicated that agents within the Hispanic male habitus, such as family expectations and peer influences played a major role in the decision to transition to the either the workforce or postsecondary education after graduation from high school. Even though many Latino parents indicated that they valued higher education, they still expected their male children to contribute financially to the
  • 52. 32 family. Consequently, these Latino males chose to enter the workforce rather than try to balance a job with pursuing postsecondary degrees or certification (Clark et al., 2013). For both male and female Latino/a students, lack of parental knowledge in the college and financial aid application process, English language deficiencies, and influences of peers who did not hold an expectation for postsecondary pursuits were all supported in previous research as agents within the student’s habitus that hindered postsecondary aspirations for this rapidly growing ethnic population (Valencia, 2011). Another barrier to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students revealed in the literature was when school counselors had unintentional low expectations for a student due to ethnicity or socioeconomic status and how that affected the student’s initiative to seek counseling for postsecondary education as well as the effort school counselors applied to different groups of students based on counselor expectations and unintentional biases (Bryan et al., 2011). Griffin and Steen (2011) proposed that more research was needed in how to address a social justice approach in school counseling through postsecondary counseling curriculum to educate future counselors on a Social Justice multi-cultural strategy. Through the lens of social justice, students from disadvantaged backgrounds were viewed with the same potential as their peers for postsecondary education. Social justice was defined as a concept that advocated that all people were equally valuable and deserved to live in a fair and democratic society that provided equal opportunities for all (Hursch & Martina, 2014). The social justice approach was supported by social capital theory. Social justice and social capital were closely related concepts that exposed the proposition that equally capable students were not receiving equal opportunities due to a lack of social capital that could be facilitated
  • 53. 33 through ensuring socially just practices through entities such as educational institutions (Coleman, 1990). In response to this enduring gap between students from rural areas or ethnic minorities and white students, and the need for intervention and support from the middle school years through the transition to postsecondary education, the U.S. Department of Education had launched several federally supported transition or college readiness programs created to extend higher education opportunities for economically disadvantaged and underrepresented ethnic students. The effort began in 1965 as a result of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 with three federally funded programs referred to as TRIO (Thurston, 2009). The three main programs within TRIO were: Educational Talent Search, Upward Bound, and GEAR-Up (Thurston, 2009). The current investigation primarily focused on GEAR-Up (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs) that was designed to provide an opportunity for disadvantaged students to receive the social capital necessary to pursue higher education (Thurston, 2009). Figure 1 depicts the general outline of the GEAR-Up program, however each program could be tailored to the unique needs of the population and community that were being served (Cole, 2010). In each GEAR-Up setting, as Figure 1 indicates, the goal of the GEAR-Up program was to provide general guidelines to enhance social capital necessary for postsecondary success regardless of the deficits that may be occurring as a result of family or disadvantaged circumstances. However, the strategies and programs offered within the spectrum of these guidelines varied depending on the needs of the students and community within that particular region (Cole, 2010).
  • 54. 34 Figure 1. GEAR-Up program general characteristics. Adapted from “A Guide to GEAR- Up Program Evaluation: Optimal Research Design, Methodology, and Data Elements”, Cole (2010), p. 2. The evolution of the achievement gap in postsecondary education began as inequity in educational opportunities and a misguided acceptance and expectation for the level of potential and achievement based on one’s ethnicity or societal status (Ladson- Billings, 2007). The realization of the equal potential and capability of all regardless of race or economic status had emerged through research that indicated that the deficit in social capital inadvertently experienced by minority and low socioeconomic students caused the gap in the academic achievement of equally capable students (Carolan-Silva & Reyes, 2013; Ladson-Billings, 2007). Students with deficits in social capital were more vulnerable to educational challenges due to personal and familial issues rather than academic ability or potential (Jez, 2014). Gear  Up  Program  Objectives   Build  relationships  that   encourage  attendance  at   school,  participation  in   extracurricular    activities,  and   effective  study  habits.   Increase  post-­‐secondary   aspirations,  knowledge,  and   awareness   Strengthen  Academic   Preparation  and  Achievement   College  course  enrollment,   success,  and  persistence.