2. Anatomyand physiology
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female organs (glands producing sex hormones and the
ova)
size: One ovary is long, 2 cmwide and 1 cmthick
Shape: almond shape.
Location: on each side of the uterus in pelvice.
3. Introduction
🠶 Ovarian cancer accounts for 3–4% of cancer in women
🠶 And is the fourth most frequent cause of cancer-related death in females
in the United States
🠶 In the year 2005, an estimated 22,000 new ovarian cancer cases were
diagnosed in the United States and 16,000 patients succumbed to the
disease.
🠶 Ovarian cancer is the second most common gynecologic malignancy,
endometrial cancer being the most common, but is the most common
cause of death among women who develop a gynecologic malignancy.
🠶 In general, ovarian cancer is a disease of the postmenopausal woman, with
the highest incidence among patients ages 65–74 year .
5. Family History
🠶 The strongest risk factor
🠶 A women with a single first-degree relative with ov.Ca has a relative
risk (RR) of approximately 3.6 for developing ov.ca compared with
general population
🠶 Her life time risk approx. 5%
🠶 5-10% of ov.ca are linked to identifiable, inherited mutations in
certain genes
🠶 Families in which three or more first-degree relatives have ovarian
or ovarian plus breast cancer are likley to have a cancer-
susceptibility genetic mutation that is transmitted in an autosomal-
dominant inheritance pattern
6. Family History
🠶 Three familial ovarian cancer syndromes:- 1-
The site specific ovarian cancer syndrome
# only ov.ca is seen
# account for 10-15% of hereditary ov.ca.
2 The hereditary breast/ovarian cancer syndrome
#associated with 65-75% of hereditary ov.ca.
3 the hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome (HNPCC),
affected individuals may have colon, endometrial, breast, ovarian or
other cancers
7. Ethnicity
🠶 Higher in white women
🠶 Higher in north America and northern Europe than Japan
🠶 Difference related to genetics, diet, or environmental exposure or a
combination
🠶 BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are more common among white women
of Ashkenazi descent
🠶 Incidence of ov.ca is higher in countries with higher per capita
consumption of animal fat
8. Reproduction factors
🠶 Nulliparous
🠶 First childbirth after age 35 years
🠶 Involuntary infertility
🠶 Late menopause and early menarche
🠶 Pts. With prolonged period or uninterrupted ovulation
9. Others
🠶 Exogenous hormones :- HRT ( hormone replacement therapy )
🠶 Dietary factors , Diets high in saturated animal fats seem to confer
an increased risk by unknown mechanisms … Japanese women who
move to the United States have an increased ovarian cancer risk.
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
10. Protective Factors
🠶 Multiparity: First pregnancy before age 30
🠶 Oral contraceptives: 5 years of use cuts risk nearly in half
🠶 Tubal ligation
🠶 Hysterectomy
🠶 Bilateral oopherectomy
🠶 Lactation
🠶 Epidemiologic and laboratory evidence suggest a potential role for
retinoids , vitamin D, NSAIDs as preventive agents for ovarian
cancer
11. Pathology
🠶 Ovarian cancer can be divided into three major categories based on the cell
type of origin .
🠶 The ovary may also be the site of metastatic disease by primary cancer
from another organ site.
🠶 Unlike carcinomas of the cervix and endometrium, precursor lesions of
ovarian carcinoma have not been defined.
13. Pathology
🠶 Major Histopathologic Categories of Ovarian Cancer
4- Neoplasms Metastatic to the Ovary
Breast, colon, stomach, endometrium, lymphoma
14. Pathogenesis
New model of ovarian carcinogenesis :-
Surface epithelial tumors divides into two broad categories: Type I and
Type II
based on their clinico-pathologic features and characteristic molecular
genetic changes
15. Pathogenesis
Type 1 Type 2
Low grade High grade
Arise from precursor lesion in a stepwise
fashion
- Cystadenoma
- Borderline tumor
Arise “de novo”
Typically present in stage I Typically present in advanced stage
Slow growing, indolent Rapid growing, aggressive
Often remains low grade
E.g.
Low grade
micropapillary
Mucinous
Clear cell
endometroid
E.g.
High grade serous
16. Typesof ovarian cancer
Theovaries contain 3mainkindsof cells:
1. Epithelial
2. Germcells
3. Stromal cells
Eachof these cells candevelop into different
type of tumors.
Subsequently there are 3 maintypes of ovarian tumours:
1. Epithelial tumours
2. Germcell tumours
3. Stromal tumours
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18. Germ cell tumors
Lessthan 2%of OvarianCancers are germcell tumors.
9out of 10 patients surviving at least 5years after diagnosis.
TypesofGermCell Tumors
Teratoma
Dysgerminoma
Endodermalsinus tumor(yolk sac tumor).
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19. Stromal tumours
🠶 About1%of ovarian cancersare ovarian stromalcell tumors.
🠶 Morethan half of stromaltumors arefound in womenolder than 50, but about 5%of
stromaltumors occur in young girls.
🠶 Themostcommonsymptomof these tumorsis abnormal vaginal bleeding.
🠶 sudden, severe, abdominal pain. This occurs if the tumor starts to bleed.
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20. Symptoms
Early symptoms ofovarian cancer:
•Painin the pelvis
•Pain onthe lower side of the body
•Backpain
•Indigestion or heartburn
•Morefrequent andurgent urination
•Pain during sexual intercourse
As ovarian cancer progresses these symptoms are also possible:
•Nausea, Weight loss, Breathlessness, Fatigue (tiredness)
•Lossof appetite
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25. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Ovarian cancer typically develops as an insidious disease, with few warning
signs or symptoms. Most neoplastic ovarian tumors produce few symptoms
until the disease is widely disseminated throughout the abdominal cavity.
🠶 A history of nonspecific gastrointestinal complaints, including : nausea,
dyspepsia, and altered bowel habits, is particularly common
🠶 abdominal distention as a result of ascites are generally signs of
advanced disease.
🠶 A change in bowel habits, such as constipation and decreased stool caliber, is
occasionally noted. Large tumors may cause a sensation of pelvic weight or
pressure.
26. 🠶 Rarely, an ovarian tumor may become incarcerated in the cul-de-
sac and cause severe pain, urinary retention, rectal discomfort,
bowel obstruction.
🠶 Menstrual abnormalities may be noted in as many as 15% of
reproductive-age patients with an ovarian neoplasm
🠶 vaginal bleeding may occur in patients with ovarian cancer in the
presence of a synchronous endometrial carcinoma or as a
consequence of metastatic disease to the lower genital tract.
🠶 Ovarian stromal hyperplasia or hyperthecosis also may be
associated with excess androgen production, which alters the
normal menstrual cycle.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
27. 🠶 On Physical Examination ,,
1. General examination
2. Abdominal examination :- Abdominal distention is one of the more
common findings. The presence of flank fullness and shifting
dullness implies the presence of ascites or a large pelvic-
abdominal mass , Recent eversion of the umbilicus
3. Lymph Node examination :- the supraclavicular and inguinal areas ,
Sister Mary Joseph's nodule refers to a metastatic implant in the
umbilicus.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
28. 🠶 On Physical Examination ,,
4. Pelvic examination :- A careful and thorough pelvic examination
provides many helpful clues regarding the etiology of a pelvic mass.
# Benign mass :- Mobile , smooth , cystic , unilateral
#malignant mass :- fixed , irregular , sold or firm , bilateral.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
29. 🠶 Investigations ,,
Tumor Markers :-
an antigenic determinant on a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein
recognized by the murine monoclonal antibody OC-125
🠶 upper limit of normal- 35 U/mL.
🠶 In postmenopausal women :- lower cutoffs, 20 U/mL
🠶 85% of patients with epithelial ovarian cancer have >35 U/mL.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
30. 🠶 Investigations ,,
Tumor Markers :-
🠶 CA125 can be elevated :-
1. less frequently elevated in mucinous, clear cell, and borderline
tumors compared to serous tumors.
2. in other malignancies (pancreas, breast, colon, and lung cancer)
3. in benign conditions and physiological states such as pregnancy,
endometriosis, and menstruation.
Many of these nonmalignant conditions are not found in postmenopausal women,
improving the diagnostic accuracy of elevated CA125 in this population.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
31. 🠶 Investigations ,,
Tumor Markers :-
🠶 One of the limitations of CA125 is that 15% to 20% of ovarian
cancers do not express the antigen.
🠶 Though FDA approved, NCCN does not recommend use of
biomarkers including CA-125 for estimating risk of cancer in case
pelvic mass.
🠶 LDH (lactate dehydrogenase)— dysgerminoma
🠶 HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)– choriocarcinoma.
🠶 AFP (alpha fetal protein)-- endodermal sinus tumors
🠶 Other routine tests ( CBC , LFT , RFT , CXR )
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
32. 🠶 Investigations ,,
🠶 Initial imaging modality of choice
# for benign vs malignant
🠶 that US detects more stage I ovarian carcinomas than
CA125 levels and physical examination
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
33. 🠶 Investigations ,,
benign :- smooth, thin walls; few, thin septations;
absence of solid components or mural nodularity.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
34. 🠶 Investigations ,,
🠶 mural nodules, mural thickening or irregularity,
solid components, thick septations (3 mm) and
associated findings such as ascites, peritoneal
implants, and/or hydronephrosis suggest
malignancy
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
36. 🠶 Investigations ,,
Computed Tomography
🠶 Not the study of choice to
evaluate a suspected ovarian lesion.
🠶 the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of CT for characterizing
benign versus malignant lesions are reported to be 89%, 96% to
99%, and 92% to 94%, respectively.
Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
37. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Investigations ,,
Computed Tomography
🠶 On CT, ovarian cancer demonstrates varied morphologic patterns, including a
multilocular cyst with thick internal septations and solid mural or septal
components, a partially cystic and solid mass, and lobulated, papillary solid
mass.
38. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Investigations ,,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
🠶 Complementary to US in the evaluation of a suspected ovarian lesion.
🠶 As with CT, disease metastatic to the ovary is often indistinguishable
from primary ovarian cancer on MRI scans
🠶 both the colon and the stomach should be examined as potential primary
tumor sites if an ovarian mass is detected.
39. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Investigations ,,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
🠶 Several studies have compared MRI to CT and US for adnexal
masses, with mixed results
🠶 Both TVS and MRI have high sensitivity (97% and 100%, respectively) in the
identification of solid components within an adnexal mass.
🠶MRI, however, shows higher specificity (98% vs. 46%)
40. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Investigations ,,
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
🠶 MRI was shown to be the most efficient second test when an indeterminate
ovarian mass was detected at US.
🠶 high cost of MRI precludes its use as a screening modality.
41. Diagnosis and Clinical Evaluation
🠶 Investigations ,,
Positron Emission Tomography
🠶 little clinical role in the primary detection of a pelvic mass
🠶 Appears to be promising for its potential to detect tumor prior to significant
morphologic changes.
🠶 US, CT, MRI, and FDG-PET all have a role to play in the accurate staging of
ovarian cancer.
🠶 These modalities also play a role in the monitoring of therapy and detection
of recurrent disease.
45. Staging …
🠶 Stage IV
. Distant metastatic disease
Malignant pleural effusion
Pulmonary parenchymal metastases
Liver or splenic parenchymal metastases (not surface implants) Metastases to
the supraclavicular lymph nodes or skin
46. 🠶 Typical spread– omentum, peritoneal surfaces such as undersurface
of diaphragm, paracolic gutters and bowel serosa
🠶 Lymphatics– follows blood supply through infundibulopelvic lig.
to nodes in para aortic region
🠶 Drainage thru broad lig and parametrium– involves ext iliac,
obturator and hypogastric regions
🠶 Along round lig– involves inguinal nodes
🠶 Extra abd mets– pleura, liver , spleen, lung, bone and CNS
Metastasis …
47. 🠶 5-year survival rates for
stage I and stage II ovarian cancer are 80% to 90% and 70%,
respectively ;
for stages III and IV ranges from 5% to 30%.
🠶 Only 25% diagnosed in Stage I
🠶 In 1994, a NIH recommended that screening be offered to women
with ≥ 2 first-degree relatives with ovarian carcinoma.
🠶 In practice, many women with a single first-degree relative are
enrolled in screening programs
Screening …
48. 🠶 Unfortunately, there are no good screening methods for ovarian
cancer at present;
most use a combination of physical exam, CA125 levels, and TVS.
No role of routine screening in general population .
Some follow women with high risk factors (e.g., family history,
BRCA mutation) using CA-125 and TVS.
Screening …
49. 🠶 Risk of Malignancy Index (RMI)
Most valuable clinical tool by combining serum CA125 values with
ultrasound findings and menopausal status to calculate a Risk of
Malignancy Index (RMI).
RMI = U x M x CA125
1. ultrasound result is scored 1 point for each of the following
characteristics: multilocular cysts, solid areas, metastases, ascites
and bilateral lesions.
2. menopausal status is scored as 1 = pre-menopausal and
menopausal
3. Serum CA125 in IU/ml and can vary between 0 and hundreds or
even thousands of units.
Screening …
51. 🠶 The treatment of ovarian cancer is based on the stage of the
disease which is a reflection of the extent or spread of the cancer to
other parts of the body.
🠶 There are basically three forms of treatment of ovarian cancer:-
1. The primary one is surgery at which time the cancer is removed
from the ovary and from as many other sites as is possible
2. Chemotherapy is the second important modality.
3. radiation treatment, which is used in only certain instances. It
utilizes high energy x-rays to kill cancer cells.
Management …
52. 🠶 Surgery
Surgery is the mainstay of both the diagnosis and the treatment of
ovarian cancer.
A vertical incision is required for an adequate exploration of the
upper abdomen.
The pelvis and upper abdomen are explored carefully to identify
metastatic disease.
This is usually possible in the majority of stage I and stage II, but
impossible in advanced cases.
Management …
53. 🠶 Surgery
I. Complete hysterectomy & removal of tubes and ovaries
II. •Lymph node evaluation
III. •Omentectomy
IV. •Intestinal resection
V. •Peritoneal stripping/Tumor debulking
VI. •Conservative management for those desiring to preserve fertility
with early stage disease
Management …
54. 🠶 Chemotherapy
Women with stage Ia or Ib and well or moderately differentiated
tumours will not require further treatment.
All other patient with invasive ovarian carcinoma require
chemotherapy (stage II-IV –possibly stage Ic ).
Drugs used are Carboplatin, cisplatin and taxol.
Management …
55. Radiation Therapy
🠶 Currently, radiation therapy plays
a limited role in the treatment of
patients with epithelial ovarian cancer
mainly because of radiation damage
to the small bowel, liver, and kidneys.
🠶 radiation therapy has been used successfully in the treatment of
patients with dysgerminoma .
Management …
56. Management …
Alternative Therapies
A number of alternative therapies have been applied for the
of epithelial ovarian cancer.
🠶 Cytokines like interleukin-2 and interferon either alone or in
combination with chemotherapy have shown some promising effects.
🠶 Monoclonal antibodies directed against ovarian cancer-associated antigens,
including CA-125, HMFG (human milk-fat globulin)
57. Alternative Therapies
🠶 Recently, antibodies against vascular epithelial growth factor
have shown efficacy in patients with ovarian cancer. Anti-VEGF
antibodies are currently being tested in combination with
carboplatin and paclitaxel in first-line chemotherapy for ovarian
cancer patients.
🠶 Gene therapy trials have used different antitumor approaches,
including the delivery of tumor suppressor gene p53 via
recombinant adenovirus into the peritoneal cavities.
The early trials have not shown significant clinical response, mainly
as a result of the inefficiency of intraperitoneal and intratumoral
gene transfer.
Management …
58. Prognosis …
The prognosis for patients with ovarian cancer is primarily related to the
stage of disease.
🠶 germ cell tumors are associated with better 5-year survival rates than
epithelial ovarian neoplasms.
🠶 Patients with dysgerminoma have a 5-year survival rate of 95%.
🠶 Immature teratomas are associated with 5-year survival rates of 70–
80%.
🠶 endodermal sinus tumor is associated with a 5-year survival rate of 60–70%.
59. 🠶 Embryonal carcinoma, choriocarcinoma, and polyembryoma are
very rare lesions, and it is difficult to assess 5-year survival
estimates.
🠶 Epithelial ovarian neoplasms of low malignancy potential are
characterized by 5-year survival rates of 95%
Prognosis …
