DissertationProQuest2014

Walden University
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by
John Simmons
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,
and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Jason Etchegaray, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty
Dr. Sandra Rasmussen, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty
Dr. John Schmidt, University Reviewer, Psychology Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Walden University
2014

Abstract
Person-Organizational Fit and Perceived Organizational Support Effects on Job
Outcomes
by
John F. Simmons
MS, Walden University, 2010
BS, Florida A&M University, 1995
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Organizational Psychology
Walden University
May 2014

Abstract
The aging adult population’s need for long-term care continues to grow; however, there is
a scarcity in nurses within long-term care facilities. High job turnover and diminished
patient care have been found to be among the consequences associated with decreased
job satisfaction (JO) and organizational commitment (OC) for nurses. This study’s
hypothesis was that person-organizational fit (P-O fit) and perceived organizational
support (POS) would predict increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment
among nurses working in long-term care. Need-press theory, the norm of reciprocity, and
social exchange theory were the theoretical foundations considered. A survey-
questionnaire composed of demographic questions, P-O Fit Scale questions measuring JS,
Survey of Perceived Organizational Support questions measuring JS, a 21-item Job
Diagnostic Survey to measure OC, and the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire to
measure OC were used to collect data from 60 long-term care nursing personnel
employed with the same organization. Multiple regression analysis showed that the POS
variable was a significant predictor of JS (F (5,50) = 8.38, p < .001, R2
= .46), R2
= .56),
and OC (F (5,50) = 6.19, p < .001, R2
= .56). P-O fit, P-O fit x POS, and other
demographic variables (e.g., age, gender) were not shown to be significant predictors of
JS and OC. The findings suggest that long-term care organizations can increase JS and
OC by creating policies and work systems that are transparent to nursing staff. The study
contributes to positive social change by helping organizations identify whether or not
employees accurately perceive support initiatives being employed to promote JS and OC.

Person-Organizational Fit and Perceived Organizational Support Effects
on Job Outcomes
by
John F. Simmons
MS, Walden University, 2010
BS, Florida A&M University, 1995
Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Organizational Psychology
Walden University
May 2014

Dedication
I wish to dedicate this dissertation to healthcare clinicians, specifically nurses who
have dedicated their lives to making a difference in the lives of their patients.

Acknowledgments
I want to take this opportunity to personally thank those individuals who
thoughtful words, support, and prayers have made this dream a reality. To my mother
who has always been my biggest cheerleader, I appreciate the strength in your words and
unwavering love. It is amazing how far someone can push him or herself when someone
believes in them like you have believed in me mom. To my sister, Tara, because of your
belief in me to achieve whatever I have set out to do, has kept me fueled and energized
throughout this journey. To my friends and coworkers who kept me in their prayers, I
appreciate you. Finally, thank you to my committee members: Dr. Jason Etchegaray,
Chairperson; Dr. Sandra Rasmussen, committee member, and Dr. John Schmidt (URR),
who have made it possible for me to reach such an accomplishment in my life.

i
Table of Contents
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………....viii
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………......x
Chapter 1: Introduction of the Study………………...…………………………....1
Introduction………..…………………………………………………………..1
Background of the Problem………………………..………………………….2
Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………..….4
Nature of the Study……………………………………………………..……..5
Research Questions and Hypotheses………………………………………….6
Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………..9
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………..…..10
Definition of Terms……………………………………………………….....11
Assumptions………………………..………………………………………..14
Scope and Limitations……………………………………………………….16
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………....16
Summary and Transition…………………………………………………….17
Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………………………………………19
Introduction…………………………………..………………………………19
Organization of the Chapter………………………………………………….20
Social Exchange Theory……………………………………………………..21
Psychological Contract…………………………………….…………….21
Social Exchange Experience………………………………………….….22

ii
Norm of Reciprocity…………………………………………………………24
Need-Press Theory…………………………….……………………………..27
Value Congruency…………………………………………………………...29
Significance of Value Congruence………………………………………30
Value Congruence in Organizational Change……………………………32
Value Congruence Types………………………………………………...32
Value Congruence Stability……………………………………………...33
Influence of Personal Values…………………………………………….33
Effects of Work-Value Congruence…...…………………………………35
Person-Organization Fit……………………………………………………...36
Direct Measurement Approach…………………………………………..39
Latent Trait Theory……………………………………………………....40
Perceived Organizational Support…………………………………………...41
Organization Commitment…………………………………………………..45
Support-Satisfaction……………………………………………………........47
Synthesis of Studies………………………………………………………….49
Summary……………………………………………………………………..55
Chapter 3: Research Method…………………………………………………….59
Introduction…………………………………………………………..………59
Research Design……………………………………………………………...59
Target Population and Sample…………………………………………….....60
Research Questions and Hypotheses………………………………………...61
Instrumentation………………………………………………………………62

iii
Demographic Survey………………….…………………………………63
The P-O Fit Scale………………………………………………………..63
Survey of Perceived Organizational Support……………………………64
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire……………………………..65
Job Diagnostic Survey………………………………….………………..66
Data Collection………...…………………………………………………….67
Data Analysis………………………………………………………………...68
Protection of Participants’ Rights…………………………………………....70
Summary……………………………………………………………………..71
Chapter 4: Results……………………………………………………………….72
Introduction…………………………………………………………..………72
Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………........72
Research Question 1 and Hypothesis 1………………………………………75
Research Question 2 and Hypothesis 2……………………………………....78
Research Question 3 and Hypothesis 3………………………………………81
Research Question 4 and Hypothesis 4……………………………………....82
Summary and Transition……………….……………………………….........83
Chapter 5: Summary, Recommendations and Conclusion……………………...85
Introduction………………………………………………………..………....85
Summary of the Findings…………………………………………………….86
Interpretation of the Findings………………………………………………...87
Consistency of the Findings……………………………………………….....88
Discussion.…………………………………..….………………………........91

iv
Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………...92
Recommendations for Future Study………………………………………....93
Implications for Practice……………………………………………………..95
Implications for Social Change………………………………………………97
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...98
References……………………………………………………………...….........100
Appendix A: Consent Form………………………………...………………….111
Appendix B: Demographic Survey…………………………………………….114
Appendix C: Person-Organizational Fit Scale…………………………………115
Appendix D: Survey of Perceived Support…………………………………….116
Appendix E: Organizational Commitment Questionnaire……………………..117
Appendix F: The 21-item Job Diagnostic Survey……………………………...118
Appendix G: Letter of Corporation a Community Research Partner………….119
Appendix H: Normal P-P Plot and Scatterplot Charts…………………………120
Appendix I: Testing Instrument Permission Letters…………………………..134
Curriculum Vitae……………………………………………………………….138

v
List of Tables
Table 1. Frequencies and Percentages for Participant Demographics……………….......73
Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach's Alpha Reliability for the Four
Scales of Interest.………..……………………………………………………....75
Table 3. Results for Multiple Linear Regression With POS Predicting JS While
Controlling for Gender, Age, Nursing Years of Experience, and Years of
Employment at Pruitt………………………………….………………………..76
Table 4. Results for Multiple Linear Regression With POS Predicting OC While
Employment at Pruitt……………………………………………..…………….77
Table 5. Results for Multiple Linear Regression With P-O Fit Predicting POS While
Employment at Pruitt…………………………………….……………………..78
Table 6. Results for Multiple Linear Regression With P-O Fit Predicting JS While
Employment at Pruitt…………………………………………………………...79
Table 7. Results for Multiple Linear Regression With P-O Fit Predicting OC While
Employment at Pruitt…………………………………………………………...80
Table 8. Moderation Analysis of POS and P-O Fit Predicting JS Controlling for
Demographics………………………………………..…………………………81
Table 9. Moderation Analysis of POS and P-O Fit Predicting OC Controlling for
Demographics…………………………………………………………………..83

vi
Table 10. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results……………………………………..83

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Normal P-P plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, and
POS predicting JS………………………………………………………………121
Figure 2. Residuals scatterplot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, and
POS predicting JS………………………………………………………………122
POS predicting OC………………………………………………..……………123
Figure 4. Residuals scatterplot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, and
POS predicting OC…………………………………………………………….124
PO-Fit predicting JS…………………………………………………………….125
Figure 6. Residuals plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, and
PO-Fit predicting JS…………………………………………………………….126
PO-Fit predicting OC…………………………………………………………...127
PO-Fit predicting OC……………………………………………………...........128
PO-Fit predicting POS………………………………………………………….129
PO-Fit predicting POS………………………………………………………….130
Figure 11. Normal P-P plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, PO-Fit,

viii
POS, and PO-Fit X POS predicting JS………………………………................131
Figure 12. Residuals plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, PO-Fit,
POS, and PO-Fit X POS predicting JS………………..………………………..132
Figure 13. Normal P-P plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, PO-Fit,
POS, and PO-Fit X POS predicting OC……………………….……………….133
Figure 14. Residuals plot for gender, age, years of experience, years employed, PO-Fit,
POS, and PO-Fit X POS predicting OC………………………………………..134

1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimated that by 2030, the proportion of
Americans over 65 would be close to 71 million (Goulding, 2009). It is projected that
about 70% of Americans will require some level of long-term care by the age of 65
(Goulding, 2009). The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has projected that over 1 million
new and replacement nurses must join the workforce by 2016 (Rosseter, 2009). Although
the need for nursing continues to grow as the aging population begins to require more
services, research has identified that the gap between the need for and the availability of
nurses also continues to widen with the inadequate number of nurses actually being
employed in long-term care (Goulding, 2009).
The American Association of Colleges noted in 2008 out of 135,000 nursing
positions that were unfilled, 19,400 of the vacancies were jobs in long-term care
(Rosseter, 2009). Compounding the problem, 8% to 14% of long-term care nurses leave
each year, with the rate of turnover doubling for those new nurses who join with no
previous long-term care experience (Goulding, 2009). As a result, there is a noticeable
nursing shortage, and it is projected that by 2025, the demand for nurses will increase
two-fold, peaking close to 260,000 unfilled nursing positions (Rosseter, 2009).
During a time when healthcare presents with so many uncertainties ranging from
the multiplicity of medical plans offered by third-party intermediaries to the economic
constraints limiting patients’ access to certain medical treatments, it is easy to ignore how
instrumental human relations are in shaping the work environment necessary for
organizational effectiveness (Tourangeau, Cranley, Laschinger, & Pachis, 2010). In

2
long-term care settings, employees and patients have a greater opportunity to develop
longer lasting relationships; therefore, group cohesiveness and nurturing relationships
contribute to how work outcomes such as job satisfaction and commitment to the
organization are identified (Tourangeau et al., 2010). Although previous studies have
identified a large majority of long-term care nurses surveyed as reporting above average
job satisfaction in relation to working with coworkers, nurses have indicated
dissatisfaction with the level of promotional opportunities, compensation, and support
they have received from superiors (Castle, Degenholtz, & Rosen, 2006; Hollinger-Smith
& Ortigara, 2004). In fact, a study conducted by Kovner, Brewer, Wu, Cheng, and
Suzuki (2006) found that 40% of the variance in job satisfaction among U.S. registered
nurses working in nursing homes is tied to the lack of support offered by superiors,
workgroup cohesion, variety of work, and autonomy.
Background of the Problem
In an effort to understand how to combat the acknowledged nursing shortages in
healthcare, evidence-based research has been pursued in order to investigate probable
factors such as job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt,
2010). Past studies have shown that when organizations are not able to maintain
adequate nursing staff as a result of job dissatisfaction or lack of commitment, both
individual and organizational performances are compromised by significant reduction in
the quality of care provided to patients, increased workloads for the remaining staff,
diminished morale, and consequently, an increase in the number of nurses resigning
(Wagner, 2010). When there is a good fit between the employee and the organization,
positive work outcomes are the result, whereas when there is a mismatch, negative

3
outcomes are often the consequence (Galletta, Portoghese, Penna, Battistelli & Saiani,
2011). For instance, when nurses are initially attracted to an organization because of the
interest the organization proclaims in providing quality care to patients and then see this
statement contradicted by inattention to patient care, nurses recognizes the organization’s
behavior as a misalignment of value congruency. It has been found that nurses who
identified perceived care adequacy as a motivating influence for job satisfaction and
commitment became dissatisfied due to poor person-organizational fit (Kramer &
Schmalenberg, 2002;Takase et al., 2005).
Earlier studies found that when individuals were able to identify a good fit
between themselves and the organization, positive work outcomes were the result. In
contrast, when there was a mismatch between the person and the organization, negative
work outcomes were the consequence (Galletta et al., 2011). In fact, person-environment
(organization) mismatch may lead employees to modify the organization’s characteristics
in efforts to accommodate their personal needs, to make necessary personal adjustments
to align more with the organization, or to leave the organization to seek out other
employment altogether (Takase et al., 2005). Perceived organizational support has also
been found to affect how nurses perceive their degree of job satisfaction. Lack of support
from the organization, particularly from direct supervisors, has been associated with
nurses reporting higher levels of burnout and diminished quality of patient care.
Empirical studies have revealed that nurses who receive flexible work schedules,
recognition, encouragement, and/or positive feedback from their superiors reported
higher levels of satisfaction and decreased intent to leave the organization (Sourdif, 2004).

4
Statement of the Problem
There is an extensive amount of literature documenting the challenges involved in
healthcare due to current and future nurse shortages nationwide and locally, particularly
in the long-term care industry (Al-Hussami, 2008). According to one research study,
decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment among nurses in general
resulted in high job turnover, increased stress-related disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety),
and diminished quality of care provided to patients (Al-Hussami, 2008). In a study
conducted by Al-Hussami (2008), researchers examined job satisfaction to determine if
predictors such as organizational commitment, perceived organizational support,
transformational leadership, and level of education had an effect on nurses’ job
satisfaction in four long-term care settings. Results identified a significant to strong
correlation between organizational support and commitment constituting 80% to 85% of
the variances that accounted for nurses’ job satisfaction (Al-Hussami, 2008).
Another research study (Ng & Sarris, 2009) captured the relationships among
person-organizational fit, perceived organizational support, job satisfaction, and
organizational commitment among nursing and support staff in an Australian acute
hospital setting. In addition, the researchers examined perceived organizational support
as a moderator to determine if it influenced job satisfaction and organizational
commitment outcomes (Ng & Sarris, 2009). This study did not focus solely on nurses as
the population under investigation, nor was the study extended in other healthcare
settings such as long-term care. However, the study conducted by Ng and Sarris (2009)
established a baseline that could be duplicated in long-term care settings, exclusively
examining nurse managers.

5
An investigation of the effect person-organizational fit has on nurse managers’
job satisfaction and organizational commitment in long-term care has considerable merit
because of the opportunities organizations would have to revisit the kinds of programs
that are being implemented to provide staff support in long-term care settings, such as
mentoring, continued educational training, incentive bonuses, and informal and formal
employee and team-building activities (Ng & Sarris, 2009). Research literature has
suggested that employees are attracted to organizations not only for extrinsic motivating
incentives, but also for opportunities to carry out their jobs that hold an intrinsic value
(Moynihan & Pandey, 2008). Previous studies have also shown a positive effect of
person-organizational fit on job satisfaction and commitment, indicating that individuals
tend to desire employment with organizations with values similar to their own.
Additionally, employees who experience higher levels of person-organization fit are
more likely to stay with the organization longer and report their jobs as being satisfying
(Bangcheng, Jianxin, & Jin, 2010). When employees believe that their individual value
systems conflict with the organization’s values, this disparity in person-organization fit
leaves individuals feeling dissatisfied with their jobs. As a result, literature has suggested,
individuals eventually leave the organization (Ng & Sarris, 2009). High nurse turnover
and job vacancy rates negatively affect patients’ access to healthcare in addition to
creating costs associated with hiring and training new staff (Al-Hussami, 2008).
Nature of the Study
This was a quantitative study using a non-experimental approach in order to test
the impact of person-organization fit and perceived organizational support on employees’
work outcomes for job satisfaction and commitment to the organization (Creswell, 2009).

6
The predetermined theories (i.e., norm reciprocity, social exchange theory) were used in a
deductive approach to testing the hypotheses in question (Creswell, 2009). For this study,
the independent variables (IV) were person-organization fit (P-O fit) and perceived
organizational support (POS), and the dependent variables (DV) were job satisfaction
(JS) and organizational commitment (OC). In an attempt to determine the influence of
one variable on the remaining variables, the moderating variable was POS (Creswell,
2009).
Past research revealed a high level of turnover among employees in healthcare
settings, with reasons ranging from low value congruence between the person and
organization to a lack of perceived support and resources from the organization (Ng &
Sarris, 2009). The aim of this study was to identify whether or not the relationships of
the variables in question showed a pattern throughout various facilities. The results from
this study may increase insight and clarity as to what types of candidates organizational
leaders may want to consider when seeking out fresh talent and/or which organizational
work culture development opportunities should be pursued in order to bring a company to
another level.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The following research questions and corresponding hypotheses guided this
study:
1. Does perceived organizational support predict increased job satisfaction and
organizational commitment among nurses in long-term care settings?
H01: POS is not a statistically significant predictor of JS or OC scores when
gender, age, years of experience, and years employed are controlled for.

7
Ha1: POS is a statistically significant predictor of JS or OC scores when
gender, age, years of experience, and years employed are controlled for.
2. Does increased P-O fit predict increase POS, JS, and OC?
H02: P-O fit is not a statistically significant predictor of POS, JS, or OC scores
when gender, age, years of experience, and years employed are controlled for.
Ha2: P-O fit is a statistically significant predictor of POS, JS, or OC scores
when gender, age, years of experience, and years employed are controlled for.
3. Does the moderator POS influence a stronger relationship between P-O fit and
JS when POS is high?
H03: The interaction term for POS and P-O fit is not a significant predictor of
JS scores in the presence of POS and P-O fit.
Ha3: The interaction term for POS and P-O fit is a significant predictor of JS
scores in the presence of POS and P-O fit.
4. Does the moderator POS influence a stronger relationship between P-O fit and
OC when POS is high?
H04: The interaction term for POS and P-O fit is not a significant predictor of
OC scores in the presence of POS and P-O fit.
Ha4: The interaction term for POS and P-O fit is a significant predictor of OC
scores in the presence of POS and P-O fit.
For Hypothesis 1, the Survey of Perceived Support (SOPS) scale was employed to
test the interaction between employees and their POS. Individuals’ interpretation of
received support would optimally determine if JS and OC were viewed as increased or
decreased. For Hypothesis 2, the P-O Fit Scale was employed to test the correlation of an

8
employee’s personal values and the organization’s values, revealing whether more
aligned values between employees and the organization were associated with increased
JS and OC. Also, employees who were determined to have a good person-organizational
fit based on their scores were expected to show a positive correlation in how they
perceived support efforts from their organization. For Hypotheses 3 and 4, hierarchical
regressions employed the moderators P-O fit and POS in efforts to predict the level of
significance it would have on employees’ JS and OC toward their organization.
To test the effectiveness of the moderator, I sought to determine whether higher
POS, as indicated in employees’ scores from the questionnaire, was associated with a
significant influence of P-O fit on employees’ JS and OC. Likewise, if employees’
scores indicated lower POS, would the influence between P-O fit and employees’ JS and
OC be reduced accordingly? In the inputting of statistical data (e.g., centered means,
intercorrelations, standard deviations) into a multiple regressions, identification of
variances would reveal if there were any significant interactions between the IVs and
DVs. A simple slope graph was also created to denote the interactions that occur
between the variables in question. The moderator variable used in the multiple
regressions should indicate a change in the effect between the IV and DV. The
significance of the interaction between the IV and DV would be contingent on how high
or low the moderator is on the IV. Therefore, if the moderator POS is high for P-O fit
(IV), JS (DV) and OC (DV) would also be high. Likewise, if the moderator POS is low
for P-O fit (IV), JS (DV) and OC (DV) would also be low.

9
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among P-O fit, POS, JS,
and OC for nurses in their roles as managers in long-term care settings. In a previous
study, Ng and Sarris (2009) gave an overall result concerning the impact of P-O fit on JS
and OC for support staff in general, so only a portion of the results were applicable to
nurses. Al-Hussami (2009) posited that past research conducted in healthcare settings
had placed the primary focus on nurses and other medical personnel in hospital settings,
resulting in a major gap in the literature on healthcare issues and concerns in long-term
care settings. Results from a previous research study conducted by Beaulieu, Shamian,
Donner, and Pringle (1997) indicated that nurses in long-term care may begin to develop
behaviors and work attitudes conducive to greater commitment if they are offered access
to more resources and opportunities comparable to those extended to nurses in acute-care
settings. This study explored the gap in Ng and Sarris’s study by focusing exclusively on
nurses working in long-term care facilities.
Acute-care and long-term settings each have distinct characteristics that produce
different job stressors for nursing. For instance, in hospital settings, there are shorter
patient stays, advanced medical technology to evaluate and treat patients, increased
mentoring and job advancement opportunities, and clearer nursing role delineations
(Gordon & Melrose, 2011). The challenges of working in a long-term care environment,
as noted by Gordon and Melrose (2011), include fewer nurses being willing to work in
long-term care, long-term psychological and physical strain from nurses having to work
with patients for extended periods of time, the use of a variety of licensed nursing staff

10
and “unregulated employees” creating role confusion, and inadequate training and career
advancement opportunities.
As research has established in long-term care settings, nurses’ roles can be
somewhat ambiguous due to the lack of regulations limiting a licensed nurse practitioner
or a 2-year registered nurse from performing the duties of a registered nurse with a
bachelor’s or master’s degree (Gordon & Melrose, 2011). This study distinguished the
values that nursing personnel embodied on an individual and managerial level in efforts
to establish whether there was value congruence between the nursing staff and
organization. By incorporating POS as a moderator, this study revealed whether POS has
any significance in relation to an employee’s JS and OC when value congruence is
established as being P-O fit for the nursing staff.
The identified findings will help disentangle some of the unexplained levels of
dissatisfaction and commitment that lead to high turnover, poor organizational citizenship
behaviors, work incivility, and/or lack of willingness to adapt to rapid organizational
changes. This study provides organizational leaders with a value congruence model (i.e.,
P-O fit, POS) that serves as another assessment/evaluative tool for selecting
managers/leaders.
Theoretical Framework
Need-press theory helps to explain how the level of congruence between an
individual’s needs and the characteristics of his or her environment facilitates the degree
of satisfaction or frustration experienced (Ng & Sarris, 2009). The norm of reciprocity
and social exchange theory explain the attitudes and behaviors individuals develop based
on personal perceptions of received treatment (Ng & Sarris, 2009). When individuals

11
perceive respectful treatment, they tend to exhibit a benevolent disposition (Ng & Sarris,
2009). When individuals perceive unfavorable treatment, they develop a hostile attitude
(Ng & Sarris, 2009). Individuals adhere to and comply with rules and requests out of a
need to return an earlier unsolicited favor, according to the norm of reciprocity theory
(Burger, Sanchez, Imberi & Gamble, 2009).
Social exchange theory, since its initial development, has placed the focus of
human interactions on the voluntary exchanging of resources by people hoping to benefit
from the exchange (Burger et al., 2010). The various resources that can be exchanged
range from information to services and/or goods (McGregor, Parker, LeBlanc, & King,
2010). The momentum of a social exchange relationship is required for all parties
involved to feel a sense of mutual satisfaction, and as a result, reciprocity strengthens the
emotional connections that allow for future interactions to take place (McGregor et al.,
2010). Social exchange behaviors in the workplace are those implicit acts that build trust
and reciprocity, beyond any formal or written policies or procedures that employees are
to uphold as part of their job (Zhe, Difang, Ming, & Lihong, 2009).
Definitions of Terms
The following provides operational definitions and explanations of terms
frequently used in this study:
Job satisfaction (JS): Refers to employees’ positive state of mind from the
accomplishments achieved on the job and work experiences (Locke, 1976). JS reflects
the degree to which employees’ work environment fulfills their needs rather its from
training and development, mentoring, or fostering good organizational citizenship
behaviors (Botham, 2011).

12
Long-term care: A typical long-term care establishment provides medical and
nonmedical services to individuals who have suffered some form of disability or chronic
medical problem, resulting in a need for either rehabilitative or restorative skilled nursing
care. The services nurses provide under the supervision of an onsite facility physician to
residents in long-term care include assistance with activities of daily living (ADLs) such
as bathing, dressing, toileting, and feeding (Hodgin, Chandra, & Weaver, 2010). Long-
term care institutions that operate as skilled nursing facilities are mandated to provide 24-
hour care by either licensed practical nurses (LPNs) or registered nurses (RNs; Hodgin,
Chandra, & Weaver, 2010).
Need-press theory: The needs-press model represents conscious, unconscious,
psychological, and physiological requirements that could be present or latent. When a
particular stimulus is introduced, it can either help or hinder the fulfillment of those needs
(Murray, 1951).
Norm of reciprocity: Involves a sense of obligation to reciprocate benefits to those
from whom one has benefited (Blau, 1964; Parzefall, 2008).
Nurse: A licensed healthcare professional who is skilled in promoting and
maintaining health for individuals under his or her care. For the purpose of this study,
nurses are employed in a long-term facility in which a physician supervises them. In
long-term care settings, nurses include LPNs, RNs, and even nurse practitioners (Wagner,
2007).
Organizational commitment: The level of loyalty and support that an employee
demonstrates on behalf of the organization as he or she develops an attitude about the
organization (Baotham, 2011). Employees can develop commitment because of

13
emotional attachment to the organization, identification with the organization, or
involvement in the organization (affective commitment); because of the financial
consequences associated with leaving the organization (continuance commitment); or due
to a sense of obligation to stay with the organization because it is the right thing to do
(normative commitment; Meyer & Allen, 1991).
Person-environmental fit (P-E fit): An interactive approach to assessing how
occupational stress occurs when there is a discrepancy between individuals’ optimal
environmental states and their perceived or actual states (Edwards, 1992). According to
the concept of person-environmental fit, when a misfit is present, the occupational strain
individuals develop tends to be more pronounced than their individual personal factors,
or the environment itself (Park, Beehr, Han, & Grebner, 2012). Not all individuals are
predisposed to acquiring psychological problems or strain as a result of poor P-E fit
because of dispositional traits that serve as a buffer to the impact of the misfit (Park,
Beehr, Han, & Grebner, 2012).
Person-organizational fit (P-O fit): The compatibility between individuals and
organizations when there is at least one entity extending support to the other in an effort
to meet needs, or there are fundamental characteristics individuals and organizations
share that are similar, or both (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, Tepeci, 2011; Zimmerman,
& Johnson, 2005). Characteristics of organizations include culture, values, goals, and
norms, whereas personal characteristics include values, goals, personality, and attitudes.
When individuals’ and organizations’ characteristics align with one another, a
supplementary fit exists (Sutarjo, 2011).

14
Perceived organizational support (POS): The degree to which employees believe
the organization cares about their well-being and recognizes their contributions to the
organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Employees have also recognized POS by the
support the organization extends in efforts to enable them to successfully meet target
goals and objectives (Makanjee et al., 2006).
Social exchange theory: A social exchange transaction and/or relationship
between stakeholders, such as one that exists between employees and an organization
(Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010).
Value congruence: A value congruency model emphasizes the similarities
individuals and organizations possess (Chatman, 1989; Kristof, 1996). Empirically,
individuals and organizations should be able to give an estimate of what the other knows
about their value congruence (Posner, 2010). When there are gaps between the shared
values of individuals and organizations, attitudes developed affect work outcomes such as
motivation, turnover, and overall JS (Posner, 2010). In this study, value congruence was
operationalized in terms of subjective fit because it involved the matching of individuals’
values and their perception of the organization’s values (Edwards & Cable, 2009;
Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made regarding this study:
1. The Person-Organization Fit Scale, the Organizational Commitment
Questionnaire, the Job Diagnostic Survey, and the Survey of Perceived
Support Scale were appropriate measurement instruments to ascertain
information critical for answering the research questions.

15
2. The participants were able to understand the instructions and the questions
presented in the survey, scales, and questionnaire selected for the study.
3. The participants represent nurses, and outcomes may not be generalized to
other professions.
4. Creswell (2009) and Ng and Sarris (2009) provided relevant data necessary
for substantiating the use of a quantitative approach for this research study. In
addition, all the scales and tests used in the methodological segment of
previous studies that were significant for this study were evaluated.
5. Burger, Sanchez, Imberi, and Gamble (2009); McGregor, Parker, LeBlanc,
and King (2010); and Zhe, Difang, Ming, and Lihong (2009) provided a
theoretical framework for social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity
that served as the foundation supporting this research.
6. Due to the nature of the research, potential participants were provided
contextual definitions and basic terminology that might be used throughout
the research, to ensure that they fully understood their role.
7. Each participant received a consent form to sign, and each facility received
consent from the IRB to gain acceptance to begin the research study.
8. The participants were informed of their right not to participate and to
withdraw at any point in the research without having any penalties applied to
them by the organization.
9. Bangcheng, Jianxin, and Jin (2010); Lamm, Gordon, and Purser (2010); and
Moynihan and Pandey (2008) provided foundational information related to
value congruence that would serve as the premise behind P-O fit, and Al-

16
Hussami (2008) and Ng and Sarris (2009) examined the relationship among P-
O fit, POS, JS, and OC with nurses in a healthcare setting.
Scope and Limitation
The study only represented nurses who chose to participate and who regarded this
type of research as meaningful in identifying the importance of value congruence to P-O
fit and POS in bringing about positive social change within the organization, as well as
value survey/questionnaire research as a valuable tool for advancing organizational
change. An expected limitation of the study was related to the use of self-reported
questionnaires and surveys because of self-report bias, fear of retaliation, and the
participants’ perception of the importance of the factors that influenced P-O fit and POS
on positive work outcomes.
Significance of the Study
Organizational change initiatives implemented by leaders could lead to more
effective and systematic changes when individuals’ values match, thus improving job
satisfaction and commitment. Lamm, Gordon, and Purser (2010) posited that when there
was strong value congruence among employees, organizational changes became more
feasible because individuals’ communication, social interactions, cognitive processing,
and interpersonal relationships increased significantly. One of the duties of an
organizational psychologist in the business industry is to assess the health of the
organization in order to determine ineffective work systems, attitudes, and behaviors in
the workplace that are counterproductive. This study may allow for organizational
psychologists to take researched statistical data into organizations that could improve
how employers make personnel selection decisions, assist with the assessment of in-

17
house promotions, and help organizational leaders identify the effectiveness of their
support initiatives.
This research may lead to positive social change in that it may offer the
opportunity for organizations to gain a better understanding of nurse managers’ POS and
to determine if there is a shared value system between nurse managers and the
organization. Additionally, organizations may have the research needed to determine if
their hiring practices result in recruiting partners whose values align with the
organization’s core values, and/or if they need to revisit the support systems instituted as
part of their present designs.
Summary and Transition
This chapter established foundational support for the study through a discussion
focused on an introduction of the problem and its significance to producing positive work
outcomes with nurses in long-term care settings. The problem statement outlined
underlying issues that should be addressed in this study that could result in increased JS
and OC, with P-O fit and POS being causal factors related to positive work outcomes. In
this study, I proposed that individuals who exhibited value congruency and/or received
support from their organization would report higher levels of satisfaction and
commitment to their jobs. This study provides increased insight into the efficacy of P-O
fit and POS and its effects on work outcomes. Chapter 2 includes a literature review that
provides a detailed account of the organization of the review, an explanation of how
literature was ascertained, and an exhausting critique of the literature. Chapter 3 is an
explanation of the methodology that includes a description of the population from which
the sample was obtained, the instruments used, and the data collection procedure that was

18
employed. Chapter 4 includes the results of the study and a detailed description of each
analysis conducted to obtain outcomes. Chapter 5 includes an overview of the study,
summary and interpretation of the analyses of the data, recommendations for future study,
implications for practice, implications for social change, and conclusions.

19
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
In this study, I examined the relationships among person-organizational fit (P-O
fit), perceived organizational support (POS), job satisfaction (JS), and organizational
commitment (OC) for nurses in long-term care settings. In addition, I individually tested
POS in order to determine how much influence it had on positive work outcomes such as
JS and OC when P-O fit between nurses and the organization was high. Multiple
databases were used for the collection of data necessary for this study, including
EBSCOhost and EBSCOhost Electronic Journals, Academic Search Complete, Business
Source Complete, ERIC, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO. Other sources used for this
review included Google Scholar and the Walden University document delivery service. I
conducted searches using key words such as P-O fit, P-E fit, value congruence, OC, POS,
JS, need-press theory, norm of reciprocity, social exchange theory, nursing, and long-
term care to investigate how past literature recognized factors that positively or
negatively affected work outcomes such as JS and OC.
Past and current literature on this subject has been successful in building a solid
conceptual foundation as to the efficacy of a P-O fit approach while recognizing the
importance of continued investigation and further studies. Previous studies examined P-
O fit in the educational and business industries (Bretz & Judge, 1994; Erdogan & Bauer,
2005; Liu, Liu and Hu, 2010; Silva, Hutcheson and Wahl, 2010; Tepeci, 2010). Earlier
studies examined POS primarily in the business professions (Hutchison & Sowa, 1986;
Ovadje, 2010; Shore & Tetrick, 1991; Su, Baird and Blair, 2009). Prior to this study, few
studies had investigated how value congruence contributed to work outcomes in medical

20
professions. Furthermore, no studies had examined P-O fit and POS exclusively in long-
term care settings.
The aforementioned databases facilitated a search of the literature for P-O fit and
POS, in which I identified one study unrelated to the topic of this study. Value
congruence, JS and OC returned 159 unrelated studies. Using the keywords value
congruence, JS and OC, I found 16 articles that were related to this study. P-O fit and
nursing returned three studies, with one of the three articles slightly related to the topic of
this study. Nursing, work outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, commitment), and long-term
care indicated eight articles slightly to moderately related to the topic of this study.
The strategy used as the approach to secure peer-reviewed literature for this study
began with identifying the topic for this study. Next, key words were used as a point of
reference for guiding the search. The literature obtained was clustered according to
subject matter related to the topic. The literature was weighed according to relevance and
significance to this study, including amalgamated empirical data highlighting existing
past and current gaps, as well as results of other studies. Through a combination of
historical and theoretical perspectives, I further synthesized the data to gain a general
overview of the problem and theoretical frameworks, denoting any similarities and
differences. Lastly, detailed descriptions of sources for the literature review were
evaluated to draw conclusions about their usefulness for the study.
Organization of the Chapter
There was an extensive amount of literature documenting the challenges involved
in healthcare due to current and future nurse shortages nationwide and locally,
particularly in the long-term care industry (Al-Hussami, 2008). Research literature

21
suggested that employees were attracted to organizations not only for extrinsic
motivating incentives; intrinsic incentives also contributed to employees’ attraction to an
organization (Moynihan & Pandey, 2008). Examples of intrinsic incentives are the sense
of achievement that comes from success in completing a task and the support others
provide to facilitate a positive group outcome (Moynihan & Pandey, 2008). When
individuals perceived respectful treatment, they tended to exhibit a benevolent disposition
(Ng & Sarris, 2009). When individuals perceived unfavorable treatment, they developed
a hostile attitude (Ng & Sarris, 2009).
A discussion of studies that have used P-O fit, value congruence, and POS is
presented, along with the sampling methods and outcomes associated with these studies.
This chapter offers an extensive account of relevant literature. In this review, the need-
press theory, norm of reciprocity, and social exchange theory collectively articulate the
theoretical framework used to examine the relationship between P-O fit and POS as
predictors of JS and OC.
Social Exchange Theory
Psychological Contract
According to a social exchange theory (SET) of the workplace, understanding
social exchange relationships fosters increased understanding of why some individuals
perceive their organizational climate as harmonious while others interpret it as being
chaotic (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). An employee’s identification of his or her JS and OC
to the organization is dictated by how that person examines his or her employment
relationship (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). When employees perceive a mutually beneficial
experience between themselves and the organization, they tend to respond behaviorally

22
by understanding their JS and OC as being positive (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). SET
helps to explain interpersonal behaviors by acknowledging that there should be a social
exchange transaction and/or relationship between both stakeholders, such as the one that
exists between employees and the organization (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010).
One consideration of SET that has significance in terms of the magnitude of
impact between both stakeholders is the duration and development of relationships
(Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). When new employees begin working with an organization
and relationships are in the initial phase, they tend to pay special attention to how the
organization goes about the exchange of transfers such as trust-building, communication,
financials, and support (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). As far as long-term employees, the
social exchange relationship phenomenon is not as vital because of past experiences
balancing between the “elements of trust and indebtedness” (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010;
McGregor, Parker, LeBlanc and King, 2010). Regardless of the exchange of the
relationship between employees and the organization, both partners must agree to the
reward being mutually equitable. Therefore, as stated by Ellis (1971), it is important for
shared values to be part of a mutual rewarding transaction agreement (Jepsen & Rodwell,
2010).
Social Exchange Experience
Social norms such as “the norm of reciprocity” contribute to how individuals
interact with one another in a give-and-take manner. It is not unusual to return a kind
gesture when someone has initiated trustworthiness, respect, work civility, or
organizational citizenship behavior (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). Blau (1964) suggested
that a “going rate” is established by a determination of local supply and demand with a

23
reasonable and equitable approximate of exchange, to be returned at some point of time
in the near future (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). Although there is no way to place a
numerical value on a reciprocated gesture, an expectation of fairness is the guiding rule
for the exchange (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). Therefore, as previously mentioned, the
going rate between employees and the organization should be an active act of exchange
for facilitating JS and OC (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). In the social exchange relationship
between employees and their employer, the support and caring that organizational leaders
show toward employees facilitate the kind of social exchange relationships that are
exercised in the workplace (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010).
The SET has been credited for connecting individuals’ behavior in the workplace
to job outcomes such as JS and OC, based on the types of exchanges that occur within
employee-organization relationships (Shore, Coyle-Shapiro, Chen, & Tetrick, 2009).
Additionally, the manner in which social exchanges are allocated throughout the
organization has the potential to significantly impact the quality of the relationships. One
factor that contributes to how individuals identify the quality of their relationship depends
on what forms of socioemotional resources are being shared in social exchanges (Shore,
Coyle-Shapiro, Chen, & Tetrick, 2009). The socioemotional resources shared in the
partnership are often dictated by the degree of value congruence presented between
employees and the organization (Shore et al., 2009, p. 290). Trust is one of the
socioemotional resources essential to fulfilling the economic resource needed for
individuals to identify positively with their jobs (Shore et al., 2009).
While Blau (1960) posited that trust develops during the social exchange when
donor and recipient rely on each other to fulfill their obligations appropriately, Gouldner

24
(1960) understood the value of the reciprocated investment between the two stakeholders
to be significant in the development of the social exchange experience (Shore et al.,
2009). Although these are two distinct interpretations of the development of the social
exchange, both theories hold meaningful value. For instance, employees may want the
return of the exchange of economic and/or socioemotional resources not only to be done
in a timely manner, but also to carry equal weight to that which was initially extended.
Past research supports the idea that social exchange between employees and an
organization has implications for increased employee commitment and reduced turnover
when organizations parallel their social exchange resources to meet the contributions
invested by employees (Shore et al., 2009). Therefore, given that intangible resources
such as trust, commitment, and attachment are social exchanges that come with long-term
investment, the reciprocation of social exchanges should be ongoing (Shore et al., 2009).
Additionally, in the effort to understand the relationship between POS and the fulfilling
or breaching of employees’ contributions to the organization, the norm of reciprocity has
been recognized as the underlying explanation for why individuals participate in social
exchanges (Shore et al., 2009).
Norm of Reciprocity
The term psychological contract has been recognized as a contemporary
framework that helps to operationalize how social exchange and the norm of reciprocity
affect employees’ attitudes and behaviors (Parzefall, 2008). For instance, when
employees perceive their employer as having upheld his or her end of a reciprocal
exchange agreement (e.g. providing employee development, merit raises, job promotions,
and a civil working environment), employees feel obligated to reciprocate the gesture by

25
increasing their efforts to fulfill the organization’s objectives. When the employee-
organization psychological contract has been met, employees experience increased
commitment and satisfaction toward their jobs; this could be the outcome of the social
exchange or norm of reciprocity (Parzefall, 2008). The wiliness of employees to return
the gesture to their employer aligns with Blau’s (1964) norm of reciprocity theory, which
proposes that there should be a sense of obligation to return the benefits to those whom
one has benefited from (Parzefall, 2008). In short, the norm of reciprocity by default
creates a psychological contract between employees and their employer that encourages a
reciprocating exchange of economic and socioemotional resources (Parzefall, 2008).
According to the norm of reciprocity, although there is no specificity regarding
the exchange of indebted behavior, a fundamental attitude of social exchange is required
for both parties to trust that the other will uphold his or her obligation (McGregor, Parker,
LeBlanc, & King, 2010; Parzefall, 2008). Two of the most common forms of reciprocity
are generalized and balanced reciprocity. While balanced reciprocity resembles
economic exchanges requiring fixed timing and the exchange of equal value (i.e.,
employee bonuses given according to the meeting of certain predetermined production
markers), generalized reciprocity requires an open-ended exchange of various
unspecified obligations to exist within the employee-employer relationship such as help,
hospitality, and generosity (Parzefall, 2008).
Findings from a study conducted by Parzefall (2008) indicated that the
relationship between perceived psychological fulfillments does influence how the norm
of reciprocity affects the employee-employer exchange relationship. These results helped
increase the understanding of why some employees’ behavior resulted in JS and OC,

26
which shed further light on how P-O fit and POS could be influenced through social
exchange and norm of reciprocity theories (Parzefall, 2008). The relationship that exists
between the person and the organization is tied into the exchange of behaviors that are of
mutual benefit and the manner in which individuals perceive that they receive support
(resources) from the organization, which promotes an exchange of reciprocity (Muse,
Harris, Giles and Field, 2008).
As stated by Blau (1964), SET reflects the importance of an employee-employer
relationship to incorporate an exchange of valued resources (Muse, Harris, Giles & Field,
2008). Resources that are acknowledged by employees to be valued include fair
treatment, organizational support, recognition, and training (Eisenberger, Huntington,
Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Kacmar & Carlson, 1997). As a result of perceived shared
values in the employee-employer relationship, employees develop an emotional
attachment toward the organization (affective commitment), which is manifested through
increased effort when engaging in work-related tasks (McGregor, Parker, LeBlanc &
King, 2010; Muse, Harris, Giles & Field, 2008).
Social exchanges between employees and organizational leaders are voluntary
actions that are acted upon on the basis that there will be some form of reciprocation from
the other (Jepsen & Rodwell, 2010). Work attitudes and behaviors of employees have
been found to follow along the perception that the employees believe that the
organization values them (Gould-Williams & Davies, 2005). According to Eisenberger et
al. (1986), when employees perceived that organizations treated them equitably because
of invested shared values, employees demonstrated positive work attitudes and behaviors
such as increased JS and OC (Gould-Williams & Davies, 2005). Studies on social

27
exchange have indicated that in dyadic relationships, both partners should take the time
necessary to develop a trustworthy relationship in order to reduce opportunities for low
commitment participation from employees (Gould-Williams & Davies, 2005). Social
exchange behaviors are implicit acts of continuous reciprocity interchanged voluntarily
between partners (Zhang, Wan, Jia & Gu, 2009).
Shared values among individuals make social exchanges and opportunities for
reciprocation easier because of the established trust, which allows for increased
cooperation to exist (Zhang et al., 2009). In fact, according to SET, the more shared
values are presented between partners, the stronger the foundation is for exchanges to
occur, leading to a higher quality of reciprocal behavior and resulting in improved work
outcomes (Zhang et al., 2009).
Need-Press Theory
Murray’s (1938, 1951) needs-press model has been recognized as a blueprint for
understanding how employees’ behaviors in the workplace are affected when certain
perceptions of their environment are assumed. Employees’ working environment is also
recognized by Murray’s needs-press model as a starting place for better understanding
how individuals’ well-being or behaviors are directly affected. The premise of the needs-
press model is divided into two components, with the “needs” representing a typology of
conscious, unconscious, psychological, and physiological requirements that could be
clearly present or latent (Murray, 1951). The “press” element of the model consists of
the particular stimuli that, when paralleled with the “needs,” have the propensity to either
help or hinder the fulfillment of those needs, such as when an employee’s need for
achievement is compromised by the press of failure (Murray, 1951).

28
Person-environment fit (P-E fit) research was introduced using the needs-press
model for conceptualizing how and why individuals may demonstrate certain workplace
behaviors such as stress, anxiety, boredom, enthusiasm, or depression, to name a few
(Murray, 1951). As stated by Edwards (1992), P-E fit theory suggests that individuals
are at risk of developing occupational stressors depending on the amount of similarity or
discrepancy noted between individuals’ “optimal environmental states” and their
perceived or actual states (Park, Beehr, Han, & Grebner, 2012). Past studies
demonstrated a correlation between individuals’ misfit with their environment and related
stressors affecting psychological health, physical health, or general well being (Park et al.,
2012).
Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, and Johnson (2005) posited that types of P-E fit
differ in both domain and content, such as an employee’s fit with his or her vocation, job,
group, organization, or supervisor. Individual needs or values meeting with the job
supplies or abilities fitting the demands of the job itself are also influenced by P-E fit
(Park et al., 2012). If it is to be assumed that P-O fit and POS have an effect on work
outcomes, then Murray’s needs-press model should also be acknowledged for
establishing a foundation for investigating the relation of employees’ perceptions and
values (needs) to those of organizations. Murray’s model supports P-O fit theory based
on the development of combinations of press/needs (i.e., thema) that are created as a
guide for properly evaluating an individual’s personality characteristics (i.e., behavior,
affect). Murray’s alpha press refers to the environment perceived by the person, whereas
beta press refers to the actual environment as it exists (Murray, 1951).

29
Ng and Sarris (2009) study focused on employee-organization value congruence
in efforts to distinguish how those values would dictate individual behaviors and work
outcomes as a result of their environment. Also, employees’ perception of the kinds of
support they were getting from the organization was investigated. Because of Murray’s
needs/press model, this study was able to operationalize these seminal contributions in
search of new knowledge to add to the already existing literature of employee attitude
formations and work outcomes that have been documented (Ng & Sarris, 2009).
Value Congruency
Values have been associated with being an essential part of an organization’s
culture, impacting individuals’ level of JS, OC, and P-O fit (Posner, 2010). One study
found that when individuals’ personal and organization values were congruent with one
another, positive work behaviors and organizational outcomes were the product of those
shared value systems (Posner, 2010). Therefore, investigating values in this study were
critical to determining work outcomes based on P-O fit and POS. Posner proclaimed that
at the core of all individuals’ lie a value system that guides how they make certain
choices (e.g., show up to work on time, complete all work timely, fulfill job obligations),
who to place trust in (e.g., believe in the decisions that were being made by
organizational leaders regarding the way the organization was being operated), the
appeals they respond to (e.g., organizational changes), and the way their time and efforts
are invested (e.g., taking continued courses or training in order to improve knowledge
and skill levels), (Posner, 2010). From an organization’s standpoint, the manner in which
values were implemented into the work culture sets the foundation for how the purpose

30
and goals for a business are established, and how day-to-day decisions are silently being
made on every level of the organization (Posner, 2010).
Based on Posner’s philosophy pertaining to value congruency in organizations,
company leaders should seek individuals, particularly, potential managers who share
similar-like values as those portrayed by the organization (Posner, 2010). Additionally,
organizational leaders should be proactive towards figuring out ways to retain those
employees with the company who have demonstrated values that closely aligned with the
organization’s corporate values (Posner, 2010). An interesting conclusion drawn from
Posner’s cross sectional study re-examining the impact of personal and organizational
values congruency on positive work outcomes of 711 managers across the United States
was the correlation between time or experience with the company being a result of
individuals’ value alignment (Posner, 2010).
Significance of Value Congruence
Value congruence in the workplace has been shown to have effects on employees’
desirability to stay employed with their organization because of the fulfillment felt
performing their job tasks (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Lamm, Gordon & Purser, 2010).
From an organizational stand point, the implementation of value systems into its
infrastructure established “normatively desirable behaviors” that served as a guide for
employees to utilize when interacting with fellow co-workers or making work-related
decisions (Edwards & Cable, 2009, p.655). Also, organizational values have been
associated with how certain resources are allocated such as reward systems, training
opportunities, or even promotions (Edwards & Cable, 2009). In an attempt to
conceptualize or measure value congruence, it can be isolated into two categories to

31
include subjective and objective fit. When an account was taken of an employee’s
personal values and how his or her perception of the organization’s values is identified is
considered to be a measure of subjective fit (Edwards & Cable, 2009). When other
individuals observed the employee’s and organizational values such as co-workers or
managers, this form of the measure was viewed as objective fit (Edward & Cable, 2009).
This school of thought was determined on the proposition that when assessing an
individual’s impression of their attitudes related to work outcomes, subject fit was more
closely related to the believed value congruence shared between employee and
organizational values (Edward & Cable, 2009; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005).
When individuals’ and the organization value congruence were present,
employees were able to have an exchange of open communication in both formal and
informal situations (Edward & Cable, 2009). Studies have shown that increased
communications among co-workers resulted in a reduction of misunderstanding,
reasoning that individuals whose values are aligned typically utilized similar cognitive
processing for interpreting and decoding verbal and non-verbal signals (Edwards & Cable,
2009; Lamm, Gordon & Purser, 2010). A reduction in role ambiguity also has been
found to be related to communications, allowing employees with shared values to be able
to deal with role confusions more effectively, by capitalizing on the priorities beneficial
to the organization’s objectives, policies and procedures (Edward & Cable, 2009; Reilly
& DiAngelo, 1990). According to the extensive research conducted on value congruence,
it is believed that trust was formed between co-workers out of interpersonal and social
similarity that promoted a higher belief of integrity, which lead individuals towards

32
accepting organizational policies and principles that dictated which situational behaviors
are right and wrong (Edwards & Cable, 2009).
Value Congruence in Organizational Change
Organizations interested in facilitating any type of changes within the company
should understand that in spite of the best intentions taken on behalf of employees;
organizational changes could produce a disruption of synergistic values that were once
shared between the person and organization (Lamm, Gordon & Purser, 2010). Prior to
considering person and organizational value congruency, individuals develop their value
systems from the communities and environments that lived and grew up in. Therefore,
employees bring to potential organizations their person-cultural fit values to
organizations that are similar (Lamm et al., 2010). When changes such as compensation
plans that outwardly appear to be beneficial to increase JS and OC, may create a
misalignment of previously synchronized values causing workers to experience decreased
satisfaction and commitment, or perhaps increase turnover intentions (Lamm et al., 2010).
Value Congruence Types
Empirical studies have found that different types of congruence could exist
simultaneously (Morely, 1997). For instance, large organizations could have separate
subunits within the company that have smaller work groups or teams that operate
differently because of their own set of established norms and values, deviating from the
value congruency recognized by the parent organization (Kristof, 1996; Lamm et al.,
2010). This study was performed in various skilled nursing facilities operating as sub-
organizations from their parent company, so by identifying the actual values established
by parent organizations and the employees’ values helped to determine the degree of P-O

33
fit and POS, and its effect on work outcomes (Lamm et al., 2010). Again, as stated by
Lamm et al., (2010) employees’ sharing similar values of the organization tended to
exhibit positive work behaviors such as increased JS and OC.
Value Congruence Stability
Past research acknowledged that new employees’ perceptions of their congruence
with an organization might shift after experiencing various events in the workplace
(Lamm et al., 2010). The study examined employees who were newly employed to those
individuals who have been with the organization for greater than five years, to see if
perceptions about working with the organization as stated by Lamm et al., (2010) either
strengthens or weakens as a result of their perceived value congruence. Individual
propensity to re-evaluate their value congruence could be influenced by the types of
program initiatives an organization initiates with their employees. For example,
organizations that typically have five 8-hour work-days a week decides to change to four
10-hours work days could cause employees to rethink how their personal values aligned
with the new values imposed by the organization. For those employees with families and
young children, having to work an extra two hours for four days out of a week, may be
extremely inconveniencing due to child care responsibilities, or increased time taken
away from family and social commitments. While on the other hand, individuals who see
having an extra full day to him or her, may find the new work schedule to be an added
value to the P-O fit relationship (Lamm et al., 2010).
Influence of Personal Values
Suar and Khuntia (2010) posited that values are the driving force behind why and
how individuals make personal, social, and professional choices. Suar and Khuntia

34
(2010) believed decisions individuals make from day-to-day are based on how their
attitude about what they believed was right or wrong, good or bad, and according to how
they have internalized those value systems, might reflect human behavior on every level.
Every organization has an established value system that dictates how employees are
supposed to operate in the workplace, and when an employee’s ability to function in such
a setting that supported his or her personal values, there was value congruency (Suar &
Khuntia, 2010). In P-O fit, either the organization or individual was able to provide what
the other needed, or in the case of value congruence the two parties shared similar
fundamental characteristics that allowed for that fit to co-exist (Suar & Khuntia, 2010).
In a study conducted by Chatman (1991), results indicated a strong correlation to
individuals who demonstrated a high degree of work value congruence being able to
make adjustments in the workplace, to those employees whose work value congruence
were reported as being low and not able to make adjustments as easily (Atkins, Russell &
Werbel, 1994).
The core of P-O fit, according to Chatman (1991), was grounded in the patterns of
value congruence that produced outcomes such as team-cooperation, creativity,
innovation, and a positive working climate. However, it was proposed that when
individuals’ personal values are juxtaposed with established value systems imposed by
organizations, disentangling the patterns and content of value differences in P-O fit
situations could be traced back to the particular situation in which the behavior was
manifested, in efforts to determine where the value congruence differed (Chatman, 1991).
Regardless of the organization, value systems were explicitly defined throughout the
organization, emphasizing those behaviors that were appropriate and inappropriate for the

35
workplace. Therefore, values contributed significantly to the work culture that becomes
operationalized throughout the various units and subgroups within the organization
(Chatman, 1991). When employees’ were able to shift his or her values in accordance to
pre-determined value systems initiated by the organization, reconfirmed the connection
that value congruency had to P-O fit (Chatman, 1991).
Effects of Work-Value Congruence
Ucanok (2008) denoted that work values referred to goals in a work setting and
different work values had end-states. These work values were guided by how individuals
prioritized their importance in relations to how they identified them with work outcomes.
The following dimensions can be classified as work values:
1. Intrinsic or self-actualization values: End-states of work values are produced
through a sense of accomplishment and by the content of the work performed.
2. Extrinsic or security or material values: End-states that occurred as a result of
the work produced, regardless of the content of the work or the individual’s
intentions for performing the job.
3. Social/environmental or relational work values: End-states referred to both
co-workers and the environment.
Ucanok’s (2008) classification of work values helped clarify some of the potential work
values this study introduced in establishing a baseline for P-O fit and POS and its
relationship to work outcomes, by showing how a particular work value might dictate
certain end-states based on the congruency of values shared or not, between the person
and the organization.

36
Person-Organization Fit
P-O fit has been recognized both in the academic and practical management fields
for the usefulness it had in evaluating behavior and attitudes commonly seem in
organizations affecting work outcomes such as job performance, organizational
citizenship behavior, and employee’s turnover intention (Liu, Liu & Hu, 2010). P-O fit
has been used in personnel selection because of the valued benefits it served to employers
and recruiters who were seeking individuals who demonstrated a high level of
compatibility with a particular organization (Liu et al., 2010). In fact, P-O fit
compatibility has been viewed by Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) by three defining
characteristics:
1. Similarity between an employee’s personalities and an organization’s
characteristics.
2. Mutuality between goals identified by the employee and organization.
3. Value congruency between the employee and the organization.
Therefore, based on P-O fit, a potential employee would have at least one of the three
aforementioned characteristics in order to be viewed as a good match for the organization
he or she is applying for employment. .
According to Westerman and Cyr (2004), P-O fit compatibility should embody a
combination of fits including values, personality, and work setting (Liu et al., 2010).
Furthermore, P-O fit compatibility has been compartmentalized into a supplementary fit
that becomes operationalized when an employee’s personal qualities aligned with those
characteristics defined by the organization; or a complementary fit that was fulfilled
when employee personal characteristics were able to bridge gaps that had been left by

37
previous employees, or if the work climate itself met the employee’s psychological needs
(Barrick & Stevens, 2005; Kristof-Brown, 2005; Liu et al., 2010). Based on a
multiplicity of research, the better the P-O fit, the happier were the employees, and the
more likely positive work behaviors would be displayed, and employees would less likely
leave the organization (Liu et al., 2010). However, according to Banagcheng, Jianxin and
Jin (2010), although P-O fit has been shown to positively affect work outcome behaviors
of employees in the business sectors, more research should be conducted in other markets
in efforts to gain a better understanding how P-O fit would increase management
practices.
Previous research efforts have indicated that when employees have not been able
to match their personal characteristics to those of the organization, a P-O misfit becomes
evident by the continuous internal conflicts occurring from dissimilarities with co-
workers and the work environment (Ng & Sarris, 2009; Westerman & Cry, 2004). As a
result, employees’ tended to exhibit diminished job satisfaction and organizational
commitment, and increased likelihood of resigning from the organization (Ng & Sarris,
2009; Westerman & Cry, 2004). P-O fit was initially introduced as an interactional
model by Chatman (1989) because of the influences that were noted between the
individual and the organization, yielding mutually benefitting organizational outcomes
such as JS and OC (Ng & Sarris, 2009).
Past studies have linked P-O fit to value congruence because of how it was used
to measure the values between the person and organization, and the higher the value
congruency between the person and organization, so was JS, OC, and the intent to stay
with the organization was positively associated (Ng & Sarris, 2009; Westerman & Cry,

38
2004; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). P-O fit’s notion of similarity has been attributed to the
work of Schneider’s (1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) framework that
recognized how individuals who believed they possessed characteristics or qualities
(values) similar to those of an organization, internalized a greater sense of ownership and
loyalty to the organization (Schneider, 1987). In spite of the positive work outcomes that
P-O fit brings to organizations, some critics have raised concerns about possible
consequences from employing employees’ that possessed high levels of value congruence
(Schneider, 1987). For example, lack of creativity and innovative thinking outside of the
box were believed to be two out of many barriers that were responsible for stagnating
organizational growth and/or survival in a competitive market, when value congruency
were too similar.
Some researches also believed developing homogeneity in the workplace would
be a drawback to having an organization whose values were so similar, because no one
would consider alternatives in their problem solving or strategic planning initiatives (Ng
& Sarris, 2009). This study investigated if P-O fit was sufficient enough for employees
to produce positive work outcomes such as JS and OC, or to determine if POS would
facilitate similar work outcomes whether employees displayed P-O fit or not to the
organization. The study conducted by Moynihan and Pandey (2008) revealed how
commitment to an organization does matter in how individual values interact with the
organizational environment. Researchers suggested that while employees are attracted to
financial stability and specific job titles, employees also hold intrinsic values that were
meaningful to them, and when opportunities were presented that allowed the exercise of

39
such values, helped to strengthen employees’ JS and attachment towards his or her job
(Moynihan & Pandey, 2008).
P-O fit’s underlying assumption was that individuals who were able to recognize
value congruence between them and the organization, would find their partnership to be a
good match, and would be less likely to leave the organization (Moynihan & Pandey,
2008). A study conducted by Vandenberghe (1999) found that Belgium nurses who
perceived a close P-O fit between them and the organization, were like likely to leave the
company after being employed at least a year (Moynihan & Pandey, 2008). Employees’
attitudes and behavioral intentions were reflected by how they associated their degree of
job satisfaction to the contributions made on behalf of the organization (Tepeci, 2011). In
a work setting, P-O fit takes into consideration those situational (environmental) factors
employees do not have control over such as their work schedules, office space, or choice
of co-workers; while personal factors such as knowledge, skills, past interactions and
experiences were those internal factors employees were able to control (Tepeci, 2011).
Through the reciprocal interaction of both situational and personal factors in the work
setting, P-O fit affected how employees’ attitudes and behaviors contributed to
organizational outcomes (Tepeci, 2011). In fact, Tepeci (2011) identified values as being
core to P-O fit because it facilitated how employees’ behaviors affected how they
performed their jobs, and how the organization’s activities were being carried out (Tepeci,
2011).
Direct Measurement Approach
Utilization of a measurement tool that focused on an individual’s perceived
perception of whether a good fit exists or not helped to understand how individuals

40
viewed their relationship towards an organization, whether it was actually a true “good fit”
or not (Tepeci, 2011). Using a direct measurement approach for evaluating P-O fit
allowed individuals to give their subjective perception of the compatibility between them
and an organization’s values (Tepeci,2011). However, critics suggested there was
increased potential for individuals to formulate bias opinions of his or her P-O fit based
on personal feelings, and consequently developed attitude formations that determined the
status of their employment with the organization (Tepeci, 2011). Another issue regarding
the use of a direct measurement approach was the lack of explicit and definitive
interpretations of the meanings of each value characteristic, so that each value was being
measured by the same standard (Tepeci, 2011). Indirect measurement of P-O fit allowed
for separate classifications of perceived and preferred organizational values to be isolated
while using the same value-items (Tepeci, 2011). A meta-analytical study conducted by
Verquer et al., (2003) revealed that P-O fit had an effect on how individuals’ formulated
attitudes about work outcomes such as JS, OC, and the intention to stay or leave an
organization (Tepeci, 2011). Among the three aforementioned subjective measures of P-
O fit, JS and OC were the two strongest correlations found (Tepeci, 2011).
Latent Trait Theory
P-O fits measured how closely related are individuals and organizations
(Chernyshenko et al., 2009). Studies suggested that P-O fit measurement allowed for
employers to select potential employees who demonstrated great potential for long-term
employment, as well as identified which individuals were are more likely to be satisfied
and committed to the organization (Chernyshenko et al., 2009). Past approaches to
measuring P-O fit required respondents to make judgment statements about themselves

41
and the organization in efforts to estimate perceived discrepancies between the provided
and desired. Also, past approaches seek out to have individuals rate explicitly how they
perceived the degree of fit between them and the organization (Chernyshenko et al.,
2009). Some of the problems identified with the utilization of a direct fit approach was
the difficulty involved with the respondents having to measure the degree and direction
of perceived discrepancies, lack of any direction either way, or individuals reporting
inflated data that yielded misguided correlations (Chernyshenko et al., 2009).
The Latent Trait approach challenged previously P-O fit psychometric assessment
tools by proposing that respondents made choices between pairs of stimuli presented that
best depicted discrepancies between one’s self and the organization (Chernyshenko et al.,
2009). For instance, individuals scoring of actual and organization values were not the
focus, but rather the distance identified between the two revealing specific consequences
such as low job satisfaction or turnover intentions (Chernyshenko et al., 2009).
Limitations noted with Latent Fit scores were the lack of a dimensionality test able to
ensure that no constructs measured would be one-dimensional such as the Autonomy fit
component (Chernyshenko et al., 2009). Additionally, due too the small sample
population used in the study, estimates for the stimulus parameters were used based on
expert’s ratings, versus using a marginal maximum likelihood estimated from the rates’
pairwise preference responses (Chernyshenko et al., 2009).
Perceived Organizational Support
POS was believed to be an expectation from the employee that the organization
would be committed to demonstrating a level of commitment to their well being in the
workplace (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Employees viewed their employment as an

42
unspoken, however, understood contractual agreement that the organization will show a
sense of obligation to providing a nurturing working climate that extended support and
mentoring for learning his or her job demands (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Consequently,
employees believed leaders/managers understood when mistakes were made, or when
circumstances beyond their control prevented them from meeting projected goals, or
when matters such as personal or family illness enabled them to attend work. On the
other hand, employees also expected for the organization to reward them through some
form of external/internal means (effort-outcome expectancy) for meeting and/or
exceeding their job expectations by extending pay raises, bonuses, promotions, and even
public acknowledgment of a job well done (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Blau (1964)
denoted that individuals make judgments of their POS based on the frequency, extremity,
and judged sincerity leaders and managers exhibited when making statements of praise
and approval (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Several studies have shown how employees’ perception of the level of value
invested into their well being resulted in increased affective attachment and effort-
expectancy on the job, which lead to increased positive work outcomes such as increased
attendance and job performance (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Moynihan & Pandey, 2008; Ng
& Sarris, 2009; Ovadge, 2010). POS has been connected to employees behavioral and
attitude formations (Shore & Wanye, 1993). A study conducted with middle managers in
Nigeria revealed that organizations should focus on the value that was placed on
supporting this particular population, as findings revealed a correlation with managers
who indicated high POS showed more support towards their employees. In return,
employees’ appreciation of the support led to them staying with the organization (Ovadje,

43
2010). In the Nigerian community (a collectivist society), their expectation of POS was
centered on the kind of values/support the community provided towards their needs.
However, results from the study indicated no relationship towards employees leaving the
organization because of cultural values (e.g. feel obligated to stay with an organization
out of responsibility to the community), but other factors such as POS, pay, benefits, and
OC were strongly associated with turnover intentions (Ovadje, 2010).
The research on POS conducted by Eisenberger et al. (1986) revealed how
employees’s commitment to an organization depended largely on the perceptions formed
about what types of support were being given to them in the workplace (Short & Tetrick,
1991). Eisenberger et al., (1986) utilized the theoretical framework of social exchange in
their interpretation of the degree of relationship between an employee’s inferences about
the organization’s commitment to him or her, and the subsequent commitment that was
returned to the organization (Short & Tetrick, 1991). Past studies have been able to
clearly describe how the SET helped to understand employees’ commitment to
organizations, by identifying the results that come from an “exchange relationship”. For
instance, employees’ level of attachment strengthened as they were consistently rewarded
for the service provided to the organization (Short & Tetrick, 1991). It was important to
emphasize that employees’ attachment to the organization gradually build as the
organization made small, but unswerving acknowledgment of the service its workers
gave to the overall success of the organization (Short & Tetrick, 1991).
According to Gouldner (1960), using the norm of reciprocity believed that (a)
people should have those who have helped them, (b) people should not harm those who
have helped them (Short & Tetrick, 1991). Therefore, norm of reciprocity gives POS

44
foundational support justifying why employees’ who perceived an organization’s
commitment, will return a similar-like behavioral disposition. Past research indicated
that nurses, in general, had a lower perception of the level of appreciation organizations
have shown towards them in comparison to other healthcare practitioners (Al-Hussami,
2009; Wynd, 2003). Such feelings described by nurses ranged from the lack of attention
to no effort at all from organizational leaders in making them feel as though their
contributions were important to building the organization or managing teams (Al-
Hussami, 2009; Wynd, 2003). As a result, research findings have indicated that nurses
tended to have diminished job satisfaction and commitment from the lack of perceived
support given by organizations (Al-Hussami, 2009; Wynd, 2003).
A study on workers in the manufacturing industry revealed how POS had a
positive effect on work outcomes such as OC (Samon & Daft, 2005). Although, the
manufacturing and healthcare industries have no similarities in actual job functions,
researchers were able to draw conclusions about the manufacturing business that
mirrored concerns with the medical industry on a business level (Samon & Daft, 2005).
Samson & Daft (2005) identified the manufacturing industry as having to cope with the
fast pace changes occurring in the world, with more work stress from the task and role
demands. Likewise, nurses were faced with different yet similar demands they had to
cope and deal with. Findings from the study conducted with manufacturing workers
concluded that POS was essential to workers, specifically lower level managers, in
performing their jobs effectively (Samon & Daft, 2005). These workers believed they
displayed more commitment when the organization were able to understand the critical
work/role demands occurring in the workplace, followed by the provision of resources

45
and tools they needed in order to perform their jobs (Samon & Daft, 2005). This study of
the investigation of nurses in long-term care identified the physical and emotional
demands that affect work outcomes, and how POS fostered increase job satisfaction and
commitment when organizations invested back into their employees (Samon & Daft,
2005).
Organization Commitment
Nursing facilities have experienced an extremely difficult challenge being able to
keep nurses committed to the organization, as the American Association of Homes and
Services for the Aging (2007) denoted that 49% nurses left long-term care annually, with
15% being registered nurses, and 13% being licensed practical nurses as of 2002 (Rai,
2012). In 2010, it was projected that 810 vacancies would be found in nursing homes
according to American Association of Homes and Services for the Aging. OC has been
linked to being an antecedent and a consequence to work characteristics such as workload,
size of the organization, social support, and JS (Rai, 2012). Regarding workload, when
employees perceived the amount of work given to them to be overwhelming, there was a
direct correlation to lower levels of commitment (Rai, 2012). One study indicated that
when organizations were large in size, the overall attitude tended to be impersonal and
bureaucratic, while other studies believed the larger an organization was, the more
resources were available to staff (Rai, 2012).
Rai (2012) highlighted that regardless of the industry, whether it’s business
organizations or human services organizations (i.e. school system, child welfare workers,
police officers), several meta-analytic studies have identified that social support was
strongly related to affective organizational commitment. As far as job satisfaction and

46
organizational commitment, there had been mixed debates about which of the two
influences the other; however, more empirical evidence indicated job satisfaction to have
more influence over employees’ level of commitment towards their organization (Rai,
2012). Baotham (2011) proposed that OC comes from an attitude formation that was
manifested by the degree of loyalty and support an employee had for his or her
organization.
Meyer and Allen (1991) categorized OC into a three-component model to include
affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Previous research related to work
outcomes such as job satisfaction and attendance, identified affective commitment as the
main contributor because of the emotional and identification individuals developed,
causing a stronger desire to stay with the organization because they want to, opposed to
staying with the organization because they needed to or because they felt a sense of
obligation (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Furthermore, past research supported that employees
who were able to develop affective commitment towards their organization have also
been found to interpret the organization’s gains, and losses as their own, demonstrated
more positive attitudes regarding organizational-wide decisions being made, and
increased internalization of the organization’s values and norms (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
In an attempt to better understand organizational commitment, Steers (1977)
developed an OC model based on three components (1) antecedents (2) organizational
commitment and (3) outcomes of commitment (Liou, 2009). This model focused on an
individual’s work experiences (i.e. personal importance, group attitudes), personal
characteristics (i.e. age, education, tenure), and job characteristics (i.e. task identity,
feedback interactions). Some of the outcomes noted in the OC model ranged from

47
employee’s intention to stay or leave the organization, to their job attendance and job
performance (Liou, 2009). The hospital setting was one of the professional domains the
OC model utilized, in which employees’ quality of work and job involvement was
positively related to their commitment to the organization (Liou, 2009). One significant
finding that stood out from Liou’s (2009) research was that nurse researchers were more
concerned with understanding the antecedents of outcomes more so than the
consequences from those outcomes, which were more important to business industries.
However, this study involving nurses in long-term care believed that in order to capture
the essence connected to employee’s work outcomes (i.e. job satisfaction), investigating
organizational outcomes would add to the already known nursing literature about
antecedents being associated to OC (Liou, 2009).
Support-Satisfaction
Interest in the relationship between social support and satisfaction led to a
research conducted with 189 nurses post 6 and 12 months of their employment.
Completion of questionnaires revealed that nurses who perceived having more social
integration from co-workers also indicated higher levels of job satisfaction and
commitment to the organization (McCloskey, 1990). Additionally, one study found that
when nurses perceived increased support from management (i.e. nurse supervisor,
administrator), so was there a decrease in job stress and increased in job satisfaction
(Abualrub, Omari & Abu Al Rub, 2009).
Several empirical studies investigating the correlation between job stressors and
JS revealed conflicting results, with some findings concluding no relationship between
the two variables. However, there were significantly more positive correlations noted

DissertationProQuest2014

Recomendados

Recomendados

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Semelhante a DissertationProQuest2014

Semelhante a DissertationProQuest2014 (20)

DissertationProQuest2014