1. 18/03/2014
What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes
describe grammar as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no
language has rules*. If we use the word "rules", we suggest
that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the
language, like a new game. But languages did not start like
that. Languages started by people making sounds which
evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-
spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time.
What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at
a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short
answer is "no". Very many people in the world speak their
own, native language without having studied its grammar.
Children start to speak before they even know the word
"grammar". But if you are serious about learning a foreign
language, the long answer is "yes, grammar can help you to
learn a language more quickly and more efficiently." It's
important to think of grammar as something that can help you,
like a friend. When you understand the grammar (or system)
of a language, you can understand many things yourself,
without having to ask a teacher or look in a book.

2. 19/03/2014
5 Most Common Grammatical Errors
Error #1: Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice
A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two independent
clauses without punctuation or the appropriate conjunction. A
comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence, but it uses a
comma to join two clauses that have no appropriate
conjunction.
Fixing a run-on sentence or a comma splice can be
accomplished in one of five different ways:
 Separate the clauses into two sentences.
 Replace the comma with a semi-colon.
 Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction--and,
but, for, yet, nor, so.
 Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction--
after, although, before, unless, as, because, even though,
if, since, until, when, while.
 Replace the comma with a semi-colon and transitional
word--however, moreover, on the other hand, nevertheless,
instead, also, therefore, consequently, otherwise, as a
result.
For example:
 Incorrect: Rachel is very smart, she began reading when
she was three years old.
 Correct: Rachel is very smart. She began reading when
she was three years old.
 Correct: Rachel is very smart; she began reading when she
was three years old.
 Correct: Rachel is very smart, and she began reading
when she was three years old.

3.  Correct: Because Rachel is very smart, she began reading
when she was three years old.
 Correct: Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began
reading when she was three years old.

Error #2: Pronoun Errors
Pronoun errors occur when pronouns do not agree in number
with the nouns to which they refer. If the noun is singular, the
pronoun must be singular. If the noun is plural, however, the
pronoun must be plural as well. For example:
 Incorrect: Everybody must bring their own lunch.
 Correct: Everybody must bring his or her own lunch.
Many people believe that pronoun errors are the result of
writers who are trying to avoid the implication of sexist
language. Although this is an admirable goal, correct grammar
is still important.
Error #3: Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage
Apostrophes are used to show possession. However, you do
not use an apostrophe after a possessive pronoun such as
my, mine, our, ours, his, hers, its, their, or theirs. For example:
 Incorrect: My mothers cabin is next to his' cabin.
 Correct: My mother's cabin is next to his cabin.
In the case of it's, the apostrophe is used to indicate a
contraction for it is. For example:
 Incorrect: Its a cold day in October.
 Correct: It's a cold day in October.
Error #4: Lack of Subject/Verb Agreement
When speaking or writing in the present tense, a sentence
must have subjects and verbs that agree in number. If the

4. subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is
plural, the verb must be plural as well. For example:
 Incorrect: The recipes is good for beginning chefs.
 Correct: The recipes are good for beginning chefs.

Error #5: Misplaced Modifiers
To communicate your ideas clearly, you must place a modifier
directly next to the word it is supposed to modify. The modifier
should clearly refer to a specific word in the sentence. For
example:
 Incorrect: At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for
Christmas.
 Correct: When I was eight years old, my father gave me a
pony for Christmas.

5. 19/03/2014
What is Structural Grammar?
Structural grammar is a means of analyzing written
and spoken language. It is concerned with how elements of a
sentence such as morphemes, phonemes, phrases, clauses
and parts of speech are put together. Under this form
of linguistic analysis, it is how these elements work together
that is most important, as the relationships between the
elements typically have a greater meaning than any of the
single elements. The study of this method therefore is an
important tool for improving clarity in communication.
History
The study of the selection and arrangement of sentence
elements is relatively new in comparison to other language
study. It developed in the early 20th century, particularly from
1930 to 1950. Linguists generally consider Ferdinand de
Saussure to be the father of the analysis. He believed that
individual units within spoken and written communication were
largely arbitrary, such as the same item having many different
titles under different languages. His concept therefore was
that the best way to study language was to look at its
systematic structure, which was really the link between
thought and sound.
Key Principles
Structural grammar operates under the assumption that what
is seen on the surface is also the straightforward meaning
behind the words of a sentence. Everything is accepted
literally and at face value, and no attempt to identify implied
meanings is made. The fact that the choice and arrangement
of sentence elements creates absolute meaning makes

6. structural grammar a foundation for being understood. Once a
person has the absolute meaning, he can look beyond it to
implied meaning if desired.
Experts accept that the way to change what is communicated
is to alter the elements and their arrangement in the sentence.
They stress that proper sentence structure makes it possible
to communicate without confusion and to conform to
community norms. In this sense, structural grammar can be
seen as a major tool for bringing and holding people together.
Acquisition
People begin to learn how to choose and arrange sentence
elements extremely early in life. As babies, people learn how
to make the basic sounds of their language, which enables
them to express rudimentary needs and wants. This expands
into entire words, and finally, children master the basics of
sentence construction and learn how to use specific words in
a particular fashion. The more sounds and words a child
learns, and the better he gets at putting them together, the
more complex ideas he can convey.
Most individuals naturally employ their language’s rules by
adulthood. They easily understand collections of sounds and
words. Adults become pickier about how they put sentences
together, as they want to be efficient, appear intelligent and
avoid misunderstandings and hurt feelings. They think ahead
and often avoid sounds, words or placement of words that
could be misconstrued or seen as politically incorrect within
the current social context.
Linguists have recognized the sequence of language structure
acquisition for many years. They still are not quite sure exactly
how a person’s brain acquires language and gains absolute

7. meaning from it, however. Research in this area is still
ongoing in hopes of improving language development.
Applications
Some language professionals look at how sentences are put
together in linguistic research, as they can garner some clues
about how a person is learning a language according to the
sounds and arrangements he selects. This type of research
provides vital information on what a person can and cannot
understand at different age levels. It can alter how an
individual communicates based on his audience and has a
strong link to both education and marketing.
Those who are studying a second language also find analysis
of sentence construction useful. They use it in a method
called comparative analysis, in which they see how the
elements and structures of the two languages are the same or
different. It is important because a person sometimes has to
abandon the engrained structural rules of his native language
to properly employ the second language. In English, for
example, adjectives precede the words they modify. In
French, they generally follow the modified words. Using the
proper words but under the wrong arrangement is a telltale
sign that someone is not a native speaker.
Teachers also use structural grammar in language and
composition classes. In the past, educators taught people how
to improve sentences and communication through techniques
such as sentence diagramming. Academic professionals still
employ these methods. The trend, however, is for teachers to
combine structural and transformational grammar and to
teach language with other techniques, such as having
students rephrase given sentences.

8. Comparisons
People often confuse the study of sentence elements and
arrangement with transitional and transformational grammar.
The transitional method does look at the arrangement of
sentence elements, but it is concerned primarily with moving
from one idea or phrase to another in a logical, clear way. The
transformational approach looks beneath the surface of the
words used in the sentence. It seeks to identify any implied as
well as expressed meanings in the arrangement of the words.
This approach also usually considered to be the logical
progression in comprehension of the written and spoken word,
taking the process of analysis one step beyond the
boundaries of structural grammar.

9. 20/03/2014
Simple Present
Simple Present is the most basic verb tense in English. It is also the
most common.
It has many uses. Read the lesson below to learn more about the
simple present.
STRUCTURE
Subject + Base Verb + Object
Examples:
 I like pizza.
 She lives in Toronto.
 We have a dog.
 They go to school.
For "he", "she", and "it" use the third-person verb.
1. Base Verb -------- play, live, run
2. 3rd Person Verb -------- plays, lives, runs
This table shows the difference between the third person
pronouns. Notice the "s" on the end of the word.
Here are all the pronouns with the verbs in simple present:
 I like pizza.
 You like pizza.
 He likes pizza.

10.  She likes pizza.
 It likes pizza.
 We like pizza.
 They like pizza.
Negatives
Negatives in simple present use do not or does not. They also
use be + not.
Do Not/Does Not
Subject + Do/Does +not + base verb
Examples:
 I do not like pizza.
 She does not play baseball.
After do not or does not the verb is always in the base form.
 He likes soccer.
 He does not like soccer.
 She studies English.
 She does not study English.

11. 21/03/2014
Simple Present Tense
English Grammar Rules
The simple present tense in English is used to describe an
action that is regular, true or normal.
We use the present tense:
1. For repeated or regular actions in the present time
period.
 I take the train to the office.
 The train to Berlin leaves every hour.
 John sleeps eight hours every night during the week.
2. For facts.
 The President of The USA lives in The White House.
 A dog has four legs.
 We come from Switzerland.
3. For habits.
 I get up early every day.
 Carol brushes her teeth twice a day.
 They travel to their country house every weekend.
4. For things that are always / generally true.
 It rains a lot in winter.
 The Queen of England lives in Buckingham Palace.
 They speak English at work.

12. 24/03/2014
Verb Conjugation & Spelling
We form the presenttense using the base form of the infinitive (without
the TO).
In general, in the third personwe add 'S' in the third person.
Subject Verb The Rest of the sentence
I / you / we / they speak / learn English at home
he / she / it speaks / learns English at home
The spelling for the verb in the third person differs depending on the ending of that
verb:
1. For verbs that end in -O, -CH, -SH, -SS, -X, or -Z we add -ES in the third person.
 go – goes
 catch – catches
 wash – washes
 kiss – kisses
 fix – fixes
 buzz – buzzes
2. For verbs that end in a consonant + Y, we remove the Y and add -IES.
 marry – marries
 study – studies
 carry – carries
 worry – worries
NOTE: For verbs that end in a vowel + Y, we just add -S.
 play – plays
 enjoy – enjoys
 say – says

13. 25/03/2014
Negative Sentences in the Simple Present Tense
To make a negative sentence in English we normally use Don't or
Doesn't with all verbs EXCEPT To Beand Modalverbs(can, might,
should etc.).
 Affirmative: You speak French.
Negative: You don'tspeak French.
You will see that we add don'tbetweenthe subjectand the verb. We
use Don'twhen the subject is I, you,we or they.
 Affirmative: He speaks German.
Negative: He doesn't speakGerman.
When the subjectis he, she or it, we add doesn'tbetweenthe subject
and the verb to make a negative sentence.Notice that the letter S at
the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third
person) disappears in the negative sentence. We will see the reason
why below.
Negative Contractions
Don't= Do not
Doesn't = Does not
I don'tlike meat = I do not like meat.
There is no difference in meaning though we normally use contractions
in spokenEnglish.
Word Order of Negative Sentences
The following is the word order to construct a basic negative sentence
in English in the Present Tense using Don'tor Doesn't.

14. Subject don't/doesn't Verb*
The Rest of the
sentence
I / you / we /
they
don't have / buy
eat / like
etc.
cereal for breakfast
he / she / it doesn't
* Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The
infinitive without TO before the verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it
is just the have part.
Rememberthat the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated
(changed) and it begins with TO.For example: to have, to eat, to go, to
live, to speak etc.
Examplesof Negative Sentences with Don't and Doesn't:
 You don'tspeak Arabic.
 John doesn'tspeak Italian.
 We don'thave time for a rest.
 It doesn't move.
 They don'twant to go to the party.
 She doesn't like fish.

15. 26/03/2014
Questions in the Simple Present Tense
To make a question in English we normally use Do or Does.It has no
translation in Spanish though it is essential to show we are making a
question. It is normally put at the beginning of the question.
 Affirmative: You speak English.
Question: Do you speak English?
You will see that we add DO at the beginning of the affirmative
sentence to make it a question. We use Dowhen the subject
is I, you, we or they.
 Affirmative: He speaks French.
Question: Does he speak French?
When the subjectis he, she or it, we add DOES at the beginning to
make the affirmative sentence a question. Notice that the letter S at the
end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third
person) disappears in the question. We will see the reason why below.
We DON'T use Do or Does in questions that have the verb To
Be or ModalVerbs(can, must, might, should etc.)
Word Order of Questions with Do and Does
The following is the word order to construct a basic questionin English
using Do or Does.
Do/Does Subject Verb* The Rest of the sentence
Do I / you / we / they have / need
want etc.
a new bike?
Does he / she / it
*Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The
infinitive without TO before the verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it
is just the have part.

16. Rememberthat the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated
(changed) and it begins with TO.For example: to have, to eat, to go, to
live, to speak etc.
Examplesof Questions with Do and Does:
 Do you need a dictionary?
 Does Mary need a dictionary?
 Do we have a meeting now?
 Does it rain a lot in winter?
 Do they want to go to the party?

Short Answers with Do and Does
In questions that use do/doesit is possible to give short answers to
direct questions as follows:
Sample Questions
ShortAnswer
(Affirmative)
ShortAnswer
(Negative)
Do you like chocolate? Yes, I do. No, I don't.
Do I need a pencil? Yes, you do. No, you don't.
Do you both like chocolate? Yes, we do. No, we don't.
Do they like chocolate? Yes, they do. No, they don't.
Does he like chocolate? Yes, he does. No, he doesn't.
Does she like chocolate? Yes, she does. No, she doesn't.
Does it have four wheels? Yes, it does. No, it doesn't.
However, if a question word such
as who, when,where,why,which or how is used in the question,
you can not use the short answers above to respond to the question.

17. 27/03/2014
Simple Past
Form of Simple Past
Positive Negative Question
no differences I spoke. I did not speak. Did I speak?
For irregular verbs, use the past form (see list of irregular verbs, 2nd
column). For regular verbs, just add “ed”.
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’
Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example
after a final e only add d love – loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled
admit – admitted
travel – travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried
Use of Simple Past
 action in the past taking place once, never or several times
Example: He visitedhis parents every weekend.
 actions in the past taking place one after the other
Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down.
 action in the past taking place in the middle of another action
Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

18.  if sentences type II (If I talked, …)
Example: If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you.

19. 28/03/2014
Use for Past Tense
1) action finished in the past
I visited Berlin last week.
2) series of completed actions in the past
First I got up, then I had breakfast
3) together with the Past Progressive/Continuous - The Simple
Past interrupted an action which was in progress in the past.
They were playing cards when the telephone rang.
Signal words
yesterday, last week, a month ago, in 2002
Form
- with regular verbs: infinitive + -ed
- with irregular verbs: 2nd column of the table of the irregular verbs
Examples
Affirmative sentences:
regular verbs irregular verbs
I played football. I went to the cinema.

20. We visited Alaska last
year.
We were in Rome
yesterday.
Negative sentences:
You must not negate a full verb in English. Always use the
auxiliary did (Simple Past of to do) for negations.
I played football.
I didn't play football.
He didn't play football.
Questions:
Use the auxiliary did (Simple Past of to do).
Did you play football?
Did he play football?

21. 31/03/2014
Special verbs in the Simple Past
Many frequently used verbs are irregular. You find these words in the appendix
of a dictionary or in your English book. You must learn these words by heart.
Have a look at the following lists which can be downloaded and printed. (*.pdf
files)
1) have as a full verb
affirmative sentence negative sentence question
every time regardless the subject (I, he, she, it, we, you, they):
I had a book. I did not have a book. Did I have a book?
2) be as a full verb
affirmative sentence negative sentence question
I, he, she, it:
I was in Rome. I was not in Rome. Was I in Rome?
we, you, they:
We were in Rome. We were not in Rome. Were we in Rome?
3) do as a full verb
affirmative sentence negative sentence question
every time regardless the subject (I, he, she, it, we, you, they):

22. I did an exercise. I did not do an exercise. Did I do an exercise?