The Viral Green

The Viral Green
The IT Industry and Green Web Marketing

Georgia State University

J. Mack Robinson College of Business

Masters of Science in Marketing

Capstone Independent Study

Dr. Pilling – Spring 2009

Final Project

Jacob J. Aull

April 29, 2009

Abstract – The Green Movement, IT, and Web 2.0
The current green movement in the U.S. has produced a fervor extending beyond the
public into the day-to-day business world. Greenwashing has run rampant, as countless
industries now advertise with green messaging and unsubstantiated claims. The Internet –
and Web 2.0. – have been heavily imbued with green messaging.

Web 2.0 is perhaps a misleading term. But essentially it represents the culmination of
open source technologies enabling social media and Web site widgets. These
technologies have changed the form of the IT industry and Web communications in
general. Communications in Web 2.0 are unique because they can be one-to-one,
collaborative, relationship-focused, and targeted to the “prosumer.”

For all the focus in modern business on green issues, the IT industry is a very minor
culprit in US greenhouse gas emissions. Yet there are many green IT products and
services advertising to increase efficiency in the data center. Much attention is paid to
making the IT industry or software companies appear more green – yet B2B buyer
companies and business journalists instead request more relevant or useful services, such
as carbon reporting software. Reasons for this lack of service could be post-dot-com
caution or lack of U.S. governmental reporting standards. Or it could be a simple lack of
ability to innovate.

There are new business and IT approaches regarding R&D and cost-efficiencies today.
Some strategic marketing approaches celebrate innovation and reduced costs resulting
from open collaboration in Web 2.0. Vehicles for this include Web 2.0, customer-
collaborative communications. These could help birth future offerings of green IT
services.

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Abstract – Content Analysis (Secondary Research Report)
A study was conducted to better understand IT industry green promotions in Web 2.0.
Top 20 software and programming companies (by revenue) were sought for green claims
in Web promotions (four video-gaming companies were removed from this study for
irrelevance). Six of the remaining 16 firms did feature green advertising As a result, there
were 20 green ads out of 184 (total ads from all companies reviewed). Green claims were
judged (and clicked-through) for substantiation. Most green ads were judged process-
oriented, and only three were judged to be unsubstantiated claims. Green advertising
claims were checked for substantiation via maximum allotment of three click-throughs.
Only two green ads were judged to have customer-orientation – unfortunately, as this was
arguably the best category to represent actual business potential and service to the
marketplace. Regardless, observing differences between companies that did make green
claims, versus those that did not, revealed intriguing results. Companies that did make
green claims also had a higher amount each of Web 2.0 communications overall (66%),
versus IT companies with no green claims (60%). This was especially true in social
networking profile pages (LinkedIn, Facebook and MySpace), where companies that did
make green claims simultaneously occupied 24 profiles between them. Comparatively,
counterpart companies had only 10 total profiles between them.

None of the examined ads revealed software products whose primary offering was green
reporting. Yet readers may find interest in the revealed quantities, and unique uses, of
Web 2.0 communications among IT companies.

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Content Outline
I. BACKGROUND: GREEN IN THE MARKETPLACE TODAY p. 4
The State of Green
Green and Web 2.0

II. CSR IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE WEB p. 7
Reporting Standards
Cautious Advancement
FUTURE Potential FOR GREEN IT SERVICES
Web and Business Theory
Web Search Marketing
The Green Beyond Tactics

III. SECONDARY RESEARCH REPORT: CONTENT ANALYSIS
OF IT “GREEN” ADVERTISING IN WEB MEDIA p. 16
Introduction: Rationale for this Research
Inspirations for Study
Research Methods
Inspirations for Study
Research decision statements and objectives
Companies
Typology
Media Channels
Brand Name Search Challenges
Advertising Placement
Affiliate marketing
Judging
Time Lapse
Additional Potential for Bias
Results

IV. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS p. 38

V. SOURCES p. 39

VI. APPENDICES p. 43
Appendix A: Preliminary research (conducted in the week before final research)
Appendix B: T-Mobile green ad
Appendix C: VMWare green Web promotion
Appendix D: Comprehensive content analysis spreadsheet

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I. BACKGROUND: GREEN IN THE MARKETPLACE TODAY
THE STATE OF GREEN
Trends in corporate social responsibility (CSR) rise and fall with the decades – this is
especially true with environmental issues (Scammon & Mayer, p. 34). The 2000s have
seen an unprecedented time of green consumer interest, emphasis in the marketplace and
pressures on business. Current green issues comprise recycling, renewable resources and
alternative energy sources. Businesses have embraced the ‘viral green.’ Companies such
as Wal-Mart, Coca-Cola and Tesco (Europe) have consistently made headlines for
reducing supply chain greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and requiring supplier carbon
footprint credit counts (“Green is Good,” 2007). Countless sites and advertisements today
cover magazines and the Web with green messaging – whether promoting a company's
green initiatives, reporting carbon footprints, requesting customers to "save trees by
requesting online, paperless billing" (see image in appendix; T-Mobile, 2009), or just
blatant "greenwashing." Many of these efforts focus on business cost-savings from
energy efficiencies (Feuchtwanger, 2009).

In studying the motivations for CSR issues in the marketplace, many facets must be
considered. These various motivations and ideas also reveal challenges of definitions in
basic terminology. For example, a common green word is “sustainable.” However, in the
business world with some confusion, sustainability can mean a focus on environmental
preservation, the sustainable power of a corporation, or even a mixture of the two
(Krueger & Gibbs, 2007). CSR issues have been used in strategic marketing to attract an
interest market, or to represent a company’s (or its leader’s) own ethics (“Union of
Concerned,” 2005). Likewise, often in business, environmental motivations or results are
often just efficiencies savings. That is, by reducing energy consumption, a company may
reduce costs and simultaneously promote an improvement in greenness (Elgin, 2007).
Hence, a common business strategy is to focus on the latter, or strive for a happy medium
between efficiency and environmental ideals (Rigby, 2008).

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While it may be tempting to judge companies on their CSR involvement or purported
ethics, many business writers and thought-leaders raise issues regarding the role of
businesses, governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in advancing
environmental issues (Vegter, 2008). Many business thought-leaders claim that
environmental issues should be far more the domain of governmental control than
corporate effort. They cite industry problems of corporate motivational conflict, lack of
corporate knowledge, inability to control the greater physical environments, and lack of
cohesion and guidance between companies for green efforts (“Good Company,” 2005.).
Put bluntly, “The proper business of business is business” (“Ethics of Business,” 2005).
Irrespective of theory or accountability, “green” messaging is here today and seemingly
ubiquitous – in both the physical world and the World Wide Web.

GREEN AND WEB 2.0
The current, hot term ‘Web 2.0’ is misleading for many. Despite the suggestion, it is not a
‘software upgrade.’ More than anything, Web 2.0 is a term attached to myriad, current
advances in Web technologies and social media. Some common definitions include viral
capabilities and multi-channel networks (as opposed to traditional one-to-many broadcast
models and single-message advertisements; “Boom in Network,” 2007).

Enabling technologies for Web 2.0 include AJAX (asynchronous JavaScript and XML
combined) – a merging of disparate programming languages enabling simple widgets. An
additional enabling technology is that of “mash-ups,” yet another tool for integrating
disparate software technologies. These are easily combined via widgets on the simplest
Web site (Deans, p. 198). It is such capabilities that have allowed the Internet to advance
from traditional search engines and e-commerce, to recommendations engines, such as
found on Amazon today. Supply and demand have increased for broadband access, also
aiding open Web-based, cross-compatibility B2B software such as CRM (customer
resource management; Bowman, 2008). Likewise, such technologies have enabled viral
social networking software (such as MySpace and Facebook), wikis (user-written article
upload) and other user content sites, such as blog-submission sites Technorati and Digg
(Scott, 2007).

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There is also no question that Web 2.0 has played a strong role in the current
environmental movement’s visibility. From corporate green-centric promotions, to
organizational activist Web sites, to dynamic metrics reports for environmental issues –
the Web teems with topical information. In fact, a truly landmark data Web site called
ScoreCard was created by the US government in 1998, specifically to publicize corporate
pollution data (Tapscott & Williams, p. 200). It achieved an unexpected level of attention
with massive hits by a curious public, and was considered one of the first, best,
foundation-setting examples of Web 2.0 (more on this below). In the more immediate era,
green has consumed blogs, as well as online communities, festivals and fund raisers such
as the 2009 “Twestival” on microblog Twitter, which funded a charity helping water
shortages and contaminations worldwide (Wortham, 2009). Not surprisingly, non-profit
organizations are escalating online fund-raisers – finding them more efficient, low-cost
and profitable than traditional approaches (Passmore, 2009). Playing off the Web 2.0
moniker, even the term “Green 2.0” has crept up in communications to describe the
current green movement (Vogel, 2008).

It is not surprising that environmentalists would find their voices on the blogosphere. The
unique attributes of this viral communications channel show the ability of fringe,
extremist and outlier opinions (or even just the loudest in a populous) to amplify their
voices for all to read. Amazon recently found this out the hard way. Strong opinions in
the blogosphere created national awareness around Easter 2009 regarding Amazon’s
(apparently unintentional) miss-categorization of alternative lifestyle literature. Amazon
initially ignored the firestorm of negative comments on blogs and microblogs. The longer
Amazon remained silent, the more the angry voices built. Finally Amazon fixed the
categorization issue and apologized online (James, 2009).

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II. CSR IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE WEB

Naturally, one would expect the IT industry to be Web 2.0-savvy, embracing these new
channels for communications. But what about the current green movement – are
prominent software companies also on the ‘viral green’ bandwagon? And do these virtual
products realistically contribute to pollutants or local, national or global environmental
degradation?

The IT industry currently only contributes to 1.5% of U.S. CO2 emissions – yet the most-
visible green IT services’ promotional literature and public documents self-servingly
focus on “e-waste” or greening for IT data centers (“IBM Project Big Green,” 2008).
IBM at least is a small exception to this rule – having made some progress offering
customer green reporting software in addition to its greener data centers (“IBM’s Green
Software,” 2008). Otherwise, when IT companies aren't focused on making servers more
efficient, PC manufacturers HP and Dell actively compete to prove whose company
supply chain is more green in the market (“Green is the way,” 2007). IT and computer
companies elsewhere are major contributors to worthy CSR initiatives, such as the non-
profit program “One Laptop Per Child (OLPC),” devoted to advancing children’s
education among the earth’s poor by providing laptop PCs at little over $100 each
(Talbot, p. 60).

Yet, in more familiar fare, in the B2B IT solutions realm, specialized green IT services
receive accusations of greenwashing and a lack of true business benefit (Vegter, 2008).
Members of the press and media call for more green IT services’ reporting solutions to
serve business in general (Winterford, 2008). NGOs provide green issues consultation
and services, and request reporting and IT involvement to serve current green values and
future government demands (“Business Guide,” 2008). There is also common media
request for triple bottom line reporting:
…while pursuing profit, enlightened companies should take care to protect the
environment and uphold the rights of workers (and others) as well. Hence the
“triple bottom line” which thought-leaders on CSR (including the United Nations

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and the European Commission) want companies to monitor and report… (“World
According to CSR,” 2005)
And the United State’s largest contributing industry to GHG emissions, the transportation
industry (33%), is not prominently obtaining green IT services or reporting (Nat’l Surface
Transport, 2007). While studies for this industry (and its IT solutions) are too few, what
few there are challenge simple assumptions. For example, a study in Japan proved that e-
commerce book sales have a higher transportation carbon footprint than traditional retail
store book sales (Williams & Tagami, 2002).

This is not to suggest that green concerns have been entirely unaided by IT or Web
deliverables. The aforementioned example of ScoreCard has already been given. At the
same time of this innovative inception, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
also commissioned the Environmental Land-Use Control Web Ring, which enabled area-
specific monitoring of environmental issues, toxins and violations, inspiring local citizens
into action (Deans, p. 198). Cited as precursors of Web 2.0 technological integrations,
these Web sites performed “mash-up” type combinations of graphic information software
(GIS) with dynamic data (Tapscott & Williams, p. 200).

Even today, GPS and mash-up integrations are recommended for basic company Web
sites (Wertime & Fenwick, p. 5). For software advancement and optimization they are
essential “The rise of Web 2.0 requires [software] applications to be much more dynamic,
bringing demands for dashboards, scorecards, graphics, maps and even animation”
(Actuate, 2009). IT and the Web have elsewhere promoted CSR issues with landmark
Web 2.0 site “The Human Genome Project,” a global, collaborative, biological research
leap-forward (Tapscott & Williams, p. 163). Likewise, social network SparkPeople
allows people to monitor and share their exercise and overall wellness information – with
timely, contextually-served health advice (www.SparkPeople.com). And SocialVibe
allows people to select sponsorship, donate to favorite social cause foundations, and
populate this info on their other social media (www.socialvibe.com). As these projects
prove, there is at least capacity for technological and idea innovation in light of CSR
concerns.

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REPORTING STANDARDS
Irrespective of IT industry capabilities, multinational corporations (MNCs) meanwhile do
face green reporting requirements beyond the U.S., in a world where all other advanced
nations have ratified The Kyoto Treaty (Vogel, 2008). Again, lack of current
environmental standards for business, which should be directed by the U.S. government,
can be a large contributor to the confusion and lack of green IT services. There is a
painfully apparent lack of baseline, cognitive metrics for environmental issues (Vegter,
2008). Concomitantly, large U.S.-based corporation early adopters of green reporting are
discovering that accurate green reporting needs to come from industry-specific experts as
opposed to general NGO consultants. For example, Starbucks has a strong, leading brand
reputation in CSR and green endeavors (it even provides pamphlet sustainability reports
in its retail stores for all customers). Yet Starbucks complains that green consultants,
accordingly employed for measurement, may know horizontal environmental issues, but
don’t know ultimately how to measure or optimize vital parts of coffee industry processes
(Lee, 2008). This perhaps puts the onus back on industry-specific IT services to fill in the
holes, since these already often contain customer niche expertise, as well as the
technological knowledge to provide green reporting services.

CAUTIOUS ADVANCEMENT
Another reason for lack of green IT services must certainly be the ripples of fear still felt
from the 2001 dot-com shake-out and bubble burst. The new breed of IT has certainly
been much more cautious in its business models. Concurrently, the IT industry is also
attempting the maturity to recognize and wait out the "hype cycle of e-commerce and
new technologies" (see exhibit 1; “Hype Cycle,” 2008). To avoid a new, great "trough of
disappointment" (such as with the dot-coms), IT companies may await a "green" demand
that is more relevant to predictable, traditional business concerns, and in a more mature
phase of the hype cycle.

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Exhibit 1: Gartner’s Hype Cycle (this hype cycle curve is considered for all new software
or hardware technologies, broad or narrow; “Hype Cycle,” 2008).

Today Americans feel the after effects of an economically catastrophic 2008, and the
dawn of an unknown 2009, with a new president and economic plan. All industries,
including IT, are unsure of the new models for successful business, but there is no
question that the Internet plays a big role. Even for items not sold or advertised online,
consumers now research online in advance for what used to be pure impulse, hedonic
purchases (Jones, S., 2009). And the research, in these new channels, involves consumer-
written reviews and collaboration in "peer-to-peer networks" (Mootee, 2007). Using
social software to write content (such as reviews and opinions formerly restricted to the
media), consumers now become simultaneous producers or "prosumers" (Wertime &
Fenwick, p. 73). While this increases customer involvement in supply and demand
models, it is easy to see how this new phenomenon can confound traditional business
approaches and the post-burst, dot-com caution of new IT services. Marketers now must
collaborate with consumers in two-way dialogue, focusing on long-term relationships in
Web 2.0 communications, as opposed to traditional one-time-message advertisements
(“Avoid Pitfalls,” 2009). Once the broad reach and collaboration of the online

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marketplace is better understood, it is conceivable that IT providers as well can be
quicker to conceptualize and serve new demand (see exhibit 2).

Exhibit 2: A value chain progressing toward green IT solutions

FUTURE POTENTIAL FOR GREEN I.T. SERVICES
Don Tapscott and Anthony Williams in Wikinomics forecast a new era of business
broad-reach and collaboration on the open source Web (2006). They see business
innovations, in all industries, working in an open approach and benefiting from the reach,
strategies and external involvement of agile giants such as Google, The Human Genome
Project and even IBM. Specifically, this strategy is termed “open innovation” (or open
sourcing), and focuses on collaboration – with customers, affiliates and vendors
(McGregor, 2009). This new model of collaboration achieves and caters to the new
markets of prosumers. Contrarily, traditional corporate and IT intellectual property R&D
approaches have highly guarded innovations and technological capabilities within the
company’s “walled garden” (Smarr, 2008). According to Tapscott and Williams, world,
science and technology problems now just need an invitation for publics online to
collaborate and solve.

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Exhibit 3: Helen Brown’s “policy-borrowing cycle in case studies” of tech and
environmental innovations (p. 38)

This outlook has parallels with that of Helen Brown, author of Knowledge and
Innovation (2008). In this book Brown explores the global, interwoven cross-pollinations
essential to major innovations today (comprising IT, Web and environmental thought and
breakthroughs; see exhibit 3). Following these theories, the world seems ripe for
breakthrough innovations, for both environmental issues and IT, requiring only the
tactical implementation to communicate and facilitate.

WEB AND BUSINESS THEORY
In spite of new Web 2.0 technologies and ideas however, the business aspects of these
theories still purport the early dot-com credo – requiring early, huge Web presence for
awareness, market share and economies of scale. These “network effects” represent
Metcalfe’s Law, an Internet theory requiring more and more users to achieve e-business
profitability (“Boom in Network,” 2007). Often-cited companies such as Amazon and
eBay are chief examples of this model. To the downfall of many, this original dot-com
Web-presence strategy (based on single-channel networks), required a critical-mass
advertising awareness before economies of scale kicked in – only then did the lower costs
of e-commerce (versus brick-and-mortar) truly profit the company.

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Yet this is not the only perspective. Chris Anderson of Wired Magazine sees the new
power of the Web as a platform for businesses to increasingly serve the “extreme niche
customer.” Here, the “long tail” of product offerings and revenue profit niche providers
(2004). While the costs to serve such miniscule segments were too high in traditional
business models, the Internet now becomes the great, low-cost, niche-business driver
(Scott, 2007). If this particular concept gains popularity and acceptance, it could solve
some complex problems of current business green reporting – such as the aforementioned
Starbucks dilemma. If a coffee-industry-specific, environmental-efficiency expert were to
arise 20 years ago, how easily and quickly could she have publicized her niche offering to
the appropriate people in promising companies? Likewise, how could they have known
of her existence? Hence, the demand for niche, a business model already visible in the
shadows of the modern IT environment. If vertical specialized IT services could
incorporate green expertise and reporting in their offerings, they could grow profits from
the increasing needs of the "infinite niche" (DigiMarketing, 2008) - while simultaneously
aiding the world’s greenness.

WEB SEARCH MARKETING
To further explain the long tail, search engine marketing (SEM) can be considered. For
pay-per-click (PPC) keyword purchases, search engine marketers choose between “head”
and “long-tail keywords” (Jones, ch. 2). Head terms were common in the early days of
search engine advertising. These broad keywords (for example, “green”) were purchased,
following Metcalfe’s Law, to achieve network effects via broad, common searches. The
industry has migrated to much more niche keyword purchasing. For one, keyword bid
prices are based on demand. Hence, broader, more common terms are more expensive.
Long-tail specific terminology is less in demand and less costly, but also more actionable.
For example, the chances of someone searching keyword “green” and simultaneously
seeking “green IT services” are pretty slim (and expensive). Yet someone searching
“green IT services” is seeking just that – and consequently represents a higher likelihood
to click-through and purchase (Jones, ch. 2).

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Google CEO Eric Schmidt further severs The Long-Tail Theory from Metcalfe’s Law by
endorsing the latter’s network effects as a requirement for new Web business models and
companies. He predicts “In fact, the Internet will lead to larger blockbusters and more
concentration of brands” (Schmidt, 2009). Regardless, both theories as discussed above
have application for advancing green efforts.

Beyond critical mass or behavioral niche, there are opinions that environmentalism needs
to be a local geographic issue (Krueger & Gibbs, 2007). The argument spotlights how
different locations have very different environmental problems with very different
scopes. Therefore, who better to address and discuss these than local governments and
their publics?

Since a major strength of the Web is the ability to transcend geographical boundaries, it
may seem counter-productive to tie Web 2.0 approaches to local issues. Yet ScoreCard
and Environmental Land-Use Control Web Ring, as discussed above, operated on a local
ZIP-code level (Deans, p. 198). An important differentiator here is the role of Web 2.0 as
public collaboration. In aforementioned book Knowledge and Innovation, historical
problems with government-initiated innovations are revealed (2008). These hierarchical,
“waterfall” management approaches dictate top-down, cascading orders (Gentle, p. 156).
Yet what is truly required for innovation and public support (critical elements to
environmental causes) is bottom-up (and horizontal partner) knowledge and ideas
(Brown, p. 68). The power of Web 2.0 and social media rise from this bottom: the
ultimate power of mass-collaboration.

THE GREEN BEYOND TACTICS
This paper has examined myriad perspectives on optimal business and technology
innovations – as well as their applicability to modern environmental issues and ideas. It
has reviewed accusations that the IT industry is not serving much-needed B2B tools for
green reporting. This paper has presented examples of environmental, Web 2.0
integrations and their applications at the local geographic level. It has presented the
power of global, open-source innovations – attributable to Web 2.0 business approaches,

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as well as Metcalfe’s Law network effects. Likewise, the appropriateness of the Web has
been demonstrated for low-cost, non-profit fund-raisers. The business requests for niche-
specific knowledge and IT green reporting have been reviewed. This paper also presented
the long-tail of the Web as potential enabler of niche business. This paper considered
arguments favoring environmental issues as governmental concerns rather than
businesses’. And here the U.S. has been considered as a world laggard in political policy
for environmental issues.

The common thread to all of these purports that the ideas and tools for technological and
green innovations and achievements are available – requiring only openness and tactical
facilitation to bring them to fruition. Yet there are voices indicating that true green
solutions require something bigger and much more elusive – a kind of ‘universal mental
shift’ (Boyle, 1996). Additionally, some claim that this mental shift must be encapsulated
(or perhaps even conducted) using new terminology for association. This too has been
attempted, as green promoters in industry and education alike have attempted new terms,
such as GE’s “Ecomagination” (Rigby, p. 1), or research authors Menon and Menon’s
“Enviropreneurial Marketing Strategy” (1997). Often, used verbiage is either confusing
to uninformed audiences or immediately receives bias (Scammon & Mayer, p. 34). For
example, part of the U.S.’s laggard approach to environmentalism, according to the New
York Times, lies in preconceptions or misconceptions of terms. “Carbon tax”
terminology has immediately received negative connotations by politicians, while
“carbon offset” terminology has received positive attributions according to research
(Gertner, p. 43). Another, often-cited prerequisite for positive, environmental discussions,
is correct “framing” for the audience (Gertner, p. 42). It is worth considering whether
Web 2.0 collaborative, two-way communications could enable optimal dialogue in these
regards.

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III. SECONDARY RESEARCH REPORT:
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF I.T. “GREEN” ADVERTISING
IN WEB MEDIA

INTRODUCTION: RATIONALE FOR THIS RESEARCH
Beyond traditional business models, and even without monetary reimbursement, Web
2.0 tools have allowed for much successful consumer- and professional-driven
innovation (take for example the “open-source” computer language Linux platform –
available to anyone for free use and creation; Tapscott & Williams, p. 8). For the IT
industry to advance green reporting software and services, a key factor to success
could be Web 2.0 (and Web 3.0) approaches (Wertime & Fenwick, p. 13).

This paper does not attempt to predict the future. It does attempt to better understand
cross-pollinating issues of environmentalism, B2B software services and Web 2.0
integration. Therefore, the content analysis research portion of this report examines
the occurrence and nature of green Web promotions among the top 20 IT companies.
IT companies’ proven familiarity with green-focused communications and Web 2.0
technologies may reveal a degree of advancement in customer benefiting business
green solutions.

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INSPIRATIONS FOR STUDY:
A driver for this research was to achieve answers to the following questions:
1. What types of environmental claims are being used by top IT companies to
promote their green concern?
2. What types of claims appear most often among Web green promotions?
3. Is there incidence of vague claims, or claims not substantiated, among
environmental ads?
4. Do some Web media platforms serve more green promotions than others?
These questions, largely drawn from “A Content Analysis of Environmental Advertising
Claims: A Matrix Method Approach” by Carlson, Grove and Kangun (p. 29), inspired the
research decision statement, questions and hypotheses below (exhibit 4). Capitalizing on
that same source, this study harnessed content analysis to research IT industry Web green
promotions. The original source approaches were deemed transferable, as both that and
this study examined green promotional claims.

RESEARCH METHODS:
• Search and access GoogleFinance top 20 IT companies’ Web sites.
• Search and document companies’ (immediately accessible) green promotions.
• Access top Web 2.0 and 1.0 channels (listed below) and search and document
same companies’ green promotions (exclusively from first page results listings).
• Observe and document all ads based on content types and orientation (criteria
below).
• Aggregate, and calculate quantity of common, like ad occurrences.

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RESEARCH DECISION STATEMENTS AND OBJECTIVES
Exhibit 4: Decision statement translation process (Zikmund & Babin, pp. 112-113)

Top IT Industry Players’ “Green” Advertising in Web Media
Decision Research Research Research
Situation Symptoms Probable Problem Statement Objectives Questions Hypothesis
The Many To appeal to Are IT Search for top What, if any, are Majority of
researcher businesses, current green companies 20 IT the types of “Green”
desires to including IT, trends, much Web “greenwashing” companies’ (by messaging in IT messaging, in
understand promulgate advertising in their Web revenue) Web green IT Web
the nature “green” ad showcases vague advertising? advertising to advertising advertising, is
and messaging “green” messages. discern types (vague, vague or
pervasiveness today and (and qty) of quantitative, unsupported.
of IT industry are accused “green” narrative)?
“green” Web of “green- messaging.
advertising washing.”
claims.
IT industry It is easier to spin Do IT Discern the What is the The “Green”
has been company-focused companies content content focus advertising
accused of green initiatives for self-serve, or orientation for for the majority majority’s
not ad messaging, serve their same (as above) of IT companies’ content-
delivering than to create and customers’ IT companies’ green orientation is
B2B- promote products needs, with green advertising not customer-
demanded that aid customers their green advertising. (process, focused.
green- in greening. offerings (as image,
reporting communicated environmental,
products in Web or customer)?
focused on advertising)?
buyers.
Web 2.0 Newer Web How commonly Discern balance How many IT “Green”
presents advertising are newer Web of IT “green” “green” ads advertising
many new channels require advertising advertising in exist in Web 2.0 representation
channels for up-to-date channels used prominant, media vs. (qty) exists
advertising technology as compared to innovative Web traditional Web equally in
today. awareness and older Web 2.0 (social 1.0 channels? Web 2.0
creative media? networking and media as Web
capabilities. Many tagging 1.0 channels.
industries lack software) media
here, but vs. traditional
presumably the IT Web 1.0
industry are new channels (SEM,
Web ad channel Web page ads).
innovators.

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COMPANIES
A purpose of this study was to observe top IT companies who could potentially aid
customer companies in green reporting and analysis. Therefore, the top 20 “Software &
Programming” companies by revenue were picked from GoogleFinance.com
(GoogleFinance.com, 2009). It is important to note that Google Finance offers different
subcategories to choose among for “technologies.” For example, Google itself is listed as
the top in the “computer services” subcategory ($21.8b). For this report, the subcategory
“software & programming” was chosen, because these companies have the greatest
ability to provide green reporting services to business customers. Undoubtedly this report
would have uncovered a more hardware-efficiency focus if focused on available
subcategories such as “computer hardware,” “computer storage devices” or “computer
networks” (GoogleFinance.com, 2009).

The top 20 software and programming companies include:
1. Microsoft Corporation
2. Oracle Corporation
3. SAP AG (ADR)
4. SAIC, Inc.
5. Symantec Corporation
6. CA, Inc.
7. Infosys Technologies Limited (ADR)
8. Adobe Systems Incorporated
9. Amdocs Limited
10. Intuit Inc.
11. Cognizant Technology Solutions Corp.
12. Autodesk, Inc.
13. VMware, Inc.
14. Lender Processing Services, Inc.
15. BMC Software, Inc.
16. McAfee, Inc.

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From the original list, the following four companies were discarded, because they are
video gaming companies and do not serve B2B software as a prominent deliverable:

Electronic Arts Inc.
Activision Blizzard, Inc.
Konami Corporation
International Game Technology.

TYPOLOGY
The typology of this report owes much to predecessor research reports and journal
articles on green advertising:
Green advertising is defined as any ad that meets one or more of the following
criteria:
a. Explicitly or implicitly addresses the relationship between a
product/service and the biophysical environment.
b. Promotes a green lifestyle with or without highlighting a product/service.
c. Presents a corporate image of environmental responsibility (Banerjee,
Gulas & Iyer, p. 24).

Further, the following words (and their variations) for this study identified “green”
messaging:
• greening
• environmental
• recycled
• sustainable
• global warming

Sustainability is a bit confusing, as it can mean either environmental sustainability or
business sustainability for the future (or both; Krueger & Gibbs, 2007). Likewise, the

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following words are sometimes associated with environmental issues, but were ruled too
vague to identify “greenness” in this study:
• efficiency
• renewable
• energy
• corporate social responsibility (CSR; “Union of Concerned,” 2005)

Typology used for this study was largely drawn from Carlson, Grove and Kangun.
Derived categories for green content orientations included, “Process Orientation, Image
Orientation, Environmental Fact and Combination” (p. 31). Another orientation, “Product
Orientation,” was dismissed from this study, since software products themselves are
mostly intangibles and don’t truly exist in the physical environment (aside from
packaging, which is used less currently due to Web downloads). Any claims in this study
focused on products were portioned into other appropriate categories. A final category
added for content orientation was “Customer Orientation,” for example representing
software products claiming to make customers greener, or to serve customer demands for
green reporting (see second research objective, exhibit 4, above).

In addition to content orientation, a second typology of concomitant categories was added
to represent content focus – derived from “Corporate Social Disclosures by Listed
Companies on Their Web Sites: An International Comparison,” by Williams and Pei
(1999). That report analyzed claims made involving “environmental,” as well as other
CSR categories. The report’s categories for “sentence… analysis” included: “(1)
monetary; (2) quantitative; and (3) narrative” (p. 397). That typology was deemed
transferable to this study, as it too studied companies’ green claims found published on
the Web. The content-focus categories were used concomitantly in this study to clarify
how found, green promotional claims were substantiated by their advertisers. The
departure from the Williams and Pei typology here was to combine the first two
categories (quantitative/monetary). This category collapse was conducted to better
facilitate the relatively small base, and to cleave numerical from narrative claims.

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Unlike the Carlson, Grove and Kangun content analysis (p. 37), these Web promotions
were given the benefit of claim-checking in linked materials. That is, after discovering a
green promotion, a maximum of two click-throughs were allowed, as rules for this
research, for an advertiser to provide content to substantiate a claim. For example, if a
green claim was made on a Web site home page, the (single) nearest or most pertinently
described link would be clicked to seek claim-substantiation. The maximum allotted
number of two click-throughs was determined by preliminary research into the nature of
Web promotional content, claims, sales communications and linking strategies
(additionally, Kristopher Jones’ Web book Search Engine Optimization, 2008, provided
best-practices reference).

This rule of two click-throughs also applied to keyword-sponsored ads, which were
typically short enough in copy to exclaim company or product name and a minimal
offering statement (usually not enough room for a cognitive green claim). Hence, ads
were typically clicked-through once to review (and verify) the company’s ad landing
page, and then one additional click-through was checked to substantiate a green claim (if
made). The term “click-through” is used in this study liberally to imply functions
resulting from clicking a link or button. However in social networking software such as
LinkedIn, clicking upon the “see more” content button merely expanded the profile page
to preview more content – without actually “clicking through” to a disparate Web page.
Despite this technicality, the term “click-through” in this study was applied to this
function in LinkedIn. Therefore, any claim made on a customized LinkedIn profile page
was still expected to be substantiated in the expanded copy from clicking (if not from
another link).

If a green promotion (with a designated content-orientation category attribution) was
observed not to substantiate its claim, it was re-categorized with one of two
classifications: “Vague” (again drawn from Carlson, Grove & Kangun, p. 31, but yielded
no coded results in this study), or the added category “Unsupported (no claim
substantiation).” Further, vague or unsupported claims were separated from true green
claims results. Hence, just as the Carlson, Grove and Kangun content analysis (p. 30)

22

permitted “classification of claims that were deemed to be acceptable,” this study gave a
positive value to green promotions which had either monetary/quantitative or narrative
claim-substantiation.

The background content of this study reported industry accusations and requests,
purporting that IT companies have not offered their true green IT capabilities to the
market. They have neglected to produce green reporting to make customer companies
more green (instead concentrating on presenting themselves, and data storage products,
as more green). It would be tempting to judge all green-message companies in this study
as proponents of greenwashing – unless they truly featured customer-oriented,
substantiated green claims (see second research hypothesis, exhibit 4, above).
Substantiated green claims of customer orientation would presumably represent B2B
software that aids customers in green measurement or estimates. This would likewise
assume that claims of process- or image-orientation did not provide an optimal, green
benefit to B2B customers or the greater market. However it is important to remember that
environmental perceptions and claims require subtleties beyond black and white thinking.
It is not as simple as declaring a company (or many claims) right or wrong, “green or
non-green” (Banerjee, Gulas and Iyers, p. 22). In “Shades of Green: A Multidimensional
Analysis of Environmental Advertising,” Banerjee, Gulas and Iyers purport that “Being
green, therefore, should be conceptualized as a continuous variable with shallow and
deep involvement as the two extremes” (p. 22). Therefore, green claims in this study have
been judged solely on the nature of the claims themselves and how, or if, they were
substantiated. To truly determine and rate IT companies based on their responsibilities
and benefits to the greater market is beyond the scope of this study and would require
steep attention to the multiple "shades" discussed by above authors.

MEDIA CHANNELS
A purpose of this study was to explore promotions in publicly accessible Web channels
(see first research objective, exhibit 4, above). More specifically, careful examination
was given to Web 2.0 media, their collaborative approaches and communications for
currency (see third research objective, exhibit 4, above). Just as the modern green

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movement and alternative energies require global collaborative efforts and major
innovation (Guggenheim & Gore, 2006), according to Moore’s Law, IT requires
innovation at rapidly accelerating rates. The background portion of this paper has already
presented Helen Brown’s studies cross-pollinating environmentalist movement
innovations with IT and Web. While innovation in and of itself was not a focus for this
research, a cross-section of IT and the modern green movement in business was.
Therefore, this convergence of innovation-related topics suggested careful examination of
the innovative media of Web 2.0. Hence, top Web 2.0 “multi-channel networks” were
studied as promotional media (“Boom in Network,” 2007). Specifically, top channels of
Web 2.0 platforms were derived from the book Social Software and Web 2.0 Technology
Trends, edited by P. Candace Deans (2009). These channels included social networking
software (LinkedIn, Facebook and MySpace), tagging media (Flickr and Del.icio.us), and
virtual world (Second Life). From book The New Rules of Marketing and PR,
recommended top blog search engines Technorati and Digg were selected for the study to
represent Weblogs (track 4). As blogs are very niche in content focus, primarily based on
one person’s view points, these major blog submission sites were chosen to represent the
most Weblog content.

Although key to this study, Web 2.0 media were not intended as exclusive sources –
more traditional Web platforms were also integrated (see third research hypothesis,
exhibit 4, above). Web site home pages could not be ignored – particularly since on the
Internet today, many Web 2.0 ads click-through to company Web site ad landing pages or
home pages themselves. In this research, Web site home pages were found by typing the
company brand name in the Universal Resource Locator (URL) field in a Web browser.
This typed company name was the common, familiar brand name for the market, or the
name used in a company logo. For example, instead of the full, formal name “Infosys
Technologies Limited,” only the name “Infosys” was used for searches. This applied to
all other names as well (exact details and results of searched names were captured in
individual research documents recorded for each company at the time of research). While
in almost all cases there were no problems, questionable Web site home pages were
additionally confirmed by linking directly from the GoogleFinance Top-20 page.

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In addition to the Web site home page as a common, bountiful source of promotional
claims, traditional search engine keyword searches could not be ignored. Most social
media incorporate search engines and contextually serve keyword PPC ads (a primary
focus of this study). Hence, it made sense also to study keyword ads served from the
traditional, top three search engines: Google, Yahoo! and Microsoft/MSN (Jones, ch. 11).

Searches in social media were conducted in the same way as searches in search engines.
In all cases the same (common) company brand names keyed into URL fields were keyed
into Web search fields on appropriate sites. If a choice was given between searching “the
Web” versus just a site search, searching the specific site was chosen. For example,
MySpace defaults to “search the Web.” For this study, “search MySpace” had to be
manually selected to receive only MySpace organic and sponsored list results.

An important channel for Web 2.0, the future of marketing, and this study is virtual world
Second Life. Second Life does require download and installation on a desktop computer
(although it interacts on the Web). To begin “searching” in Second Life, an avatar must
be created. For the purposes of this study, an avatar was created and teleported to the
“Orientation Island” to learn optimal company-searching strategies. The chosen, optimal
approach involved searching for company-owned islands from the Top 20 IT group.
Once “in-world,” from the Second Life “search” button, the company name was typed in
and searched for “place” (Deans, ch. VII). For the resulting listed company islands, the
avatar “teleported” (without flying) and stood where landed. For rules of this study, the
only permission for avatar forward progress occurred when Second Life directed the
avatar to move. That is, red directional arrow indicators appeared on the island, in front
of the avatar, listing proximity to the company island’s epicenter or reception location.
Once the avatar moved and arrived at the epicenter, the indicators would disappear, and
no additional avatar movement (forward progress, walking or flight) was permitted.
Keyboard right- and left-arrow buttons were permitted and used to turn the avatar’s
vision 360 degrees in search of “green” promotions. Any perceived communications were
“zoomed” (via Second Life “mouse look;” physically turning the mouse’s wheel) to

25

observe in detail, but no avatar movement (forward progress) took place. The reason for
this approach was to avoid directional (or other) bias, as it would be nearly impossible to
replicate avatar exact movements in a location for purposes of future study. Three
hundred and sixty degree vision, however, is not impossible to replicate. Since a purpose
of this report is to view the “immediate accessibility” of IT green communications, avatar
movement (beyond teleporting and head-turning) was restricted in this research.

Microsoft is a good example to illustrate the importance of Second Life to Web 2.0
approaches and innovations. In preliminary research Microsoft’s top Second Life organic
search result (for “all” instead of “place”) produced a Wiki on how to build in Windows
for Second Life. This is a great demonstration of prosumer- and Web 2.0-integration –
touching consumer connections, collaboration and creation (Wertime & Fenwick, p. 222).
Following teleportation, the Microsoft island also immediately offered product demos
and class-style learning in a virtual amphitheater (also good customer focus
representation). However scoring such items was beyond the scope of this research.

Many social media, such as Del.icio.us, have profile pages appearing in organic search
results. However, profile page results, for the purposes of this study, were researched
only in social networking software (as their core business offering comprises profiling for
social connections). Social media on the whole offer myriad Web 2.0 functions.
Del.icio.us is primarily a URL bookmarking, tagging and sharing site (Deans, p. 193).
Likewise, MySpace is one of the highest-activity blog sites (Deans, p. 154). Also, several
IT companies studied here uploaded video demos to MySpace pages, emphasizing
MySpace as a video resource (upload, tagging and sharing) site. All social media studied
here appear to have similar dichotomies of roles and positioning – they all offer more
social media features than their primary, perceived positioning represents.

Readers may wonder about personal favorite media with similar features, for example,
Wikipedia, YouTube and Pandora. Wikipedia for one does not allow advertising.
Likewise, these sites were not the top subjects of focus in Web 2.0 marketing sources
Social Software and Web 2.0 Technology Trends (2009), The New Rules of Marketing

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and PR (2007), DigiMarketing (2008) or Wikinomics (2006). Yet Google’s YouTube is
an important widget integration – just as GoogleMaps is an important mash-up (mash-ups
are Web 2.0 widgets and tools for combining software technological and hosting
capabilities on Web sites). YouTube-hosted video allows company sites or software to
easily upload, integrate and measure results (Wertime & Fenwick, p. 76). Pandora is a
music customization site, allowing users to create, customize, share, bookmark and rate
their own radio stations – another great example of Web 2.0 capabilities integrated
(www.pandora.com).

Two other Web channels that had to be removed from the study were Twitter and MSN
(search engine). Twitter, a microblog, is one of the most visited sites of Web 2.0 media
(Walsh, 2009). However it does not return obvious company-paid advertising (such as
search engine pay-per-click results for company listings, or other contextual advertising),
and therefore was removed from this study. Likewise, Microsoft (MSN.com) is one of the
top three search engines (Jones, ch. 11), but an obvious conflict of interests arose in this
report, as Microsoft was also the top IT company (in revenue) being measured. Assuming
a natural skew in its favor, the Microsoft search engine was consequently removed from
this study. This is not to say that all conflicts of interest were herein removed –
presumably some subject IT companies are affiliate partners of, or else own share
interests in, the social media providers within which they are studied. For example, the
Google search engine now searches Adobe PDF files for content on the Web, presuming
some cooperation between the two companies (Adobe is one of the top 20 IT companies
studied; Chartier, 2008). At least in name however, the one obvious conflict was negated.

BRAND NAME SEARCH CHALLENGES
This brand name search approach did create problems for the company “CA, Inc.,” which
received searches for company name “CA,” and in many cases yielded many returns for
the state of California or other acronyms. In fact in Digg, the search produced no results,
as two letters were too short for a proper Digg search. These problems were perceived as
a branding problem for CA – research results were recorded as found. Resolving potential
confusion in the greater marketplace for company names is beyond the scope of this

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research – when CA advertises, they have the misfortune of competing in part against all
organizations that might also have some claim on those two letters. Similar problems
occurred with Lender Processing Services, Inc. When searches for “Lender” produced
conflicting, undesirable results, “Lender Processing” was attempted as well in all media
for confirmation. In both cases, results were exactly the same (most of the time yielding
no promotions), proving Lender Processing Services as a company with very little Web
presence and an unfortunately confusing brand name.

ADVERTISING PLACEMENT
Social Media PPC sponsored results text advertising is not necessarily always chosen by
the advertiser. For example, Google AdWords advertising networks allows contextually-
served ads on a vast network of Web sites including some social media. Depending on
the level of an advertiser’s chosen account, there are varying degrees to control where ads
appear. Some accounts allow network preferences controls to exclude advertising on
certain sites. Other account levels allow only “all or none” choices between all Google
networked and affiliate sites or just Google.com (Jones, ch. 11). Of course such Google
textual advertising is contextually served, providing an automatic filter for ad locations.
Yahoo!’s model of advertising options is similar. However the purpose of this research
report is not to investigate whether IT companies deliberately chose specific social media
for green advertising. Logically, the companies (and/or their advertising buyers) that
appeared in Google- or Yahoo!-served sponsor listings in social media, at least knew they
could appear in Social Media (and approved of this possibility) – and likely had even
more control than this, given the size of company and advertising accounts
(Jones, ch. 11).

Some media channels are more transparent about their search engines than others. For
example, Flickr is a Yahoo! company, utilizing Yahoo!’s search engine for site searches
(flickr.com, 2009). Del.icio.us also provides Yahoo! search PPC listings. Digg’s searches
are provided by Microsoft (Digg.com, 2009). But LinkedIn has its own search engine
independent of Google or Yahoo! (Longest, 2009). Technorati has its own search engine

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(Technorati.com is considered a blog search engine, but it additionally does present a
couple of ads by Google buried in organic search results).

Of course regardless of keyword sponsored listings, company-customized pages are
purposefully placed in social networks. Take for example, a Microsoft page in MySpace,
obvious of Microsoft’s own creation to attract fans and raise brand awareness. Some
social media pages are harder to discern in origin – employees, users or brand fans
sometimes generate pages for companies they wish to support, or to connect with other
supporters. Likewise, some social network pages exist in foreign languages; for example
Microsoft has several Facebook pages in foreign languages. The purpose of this report
however is not to examine languages beyond English; therefore these few pages are
discarded from the study.

While the term PPC (pay-per-click) is used liberally throughout this report, it is important
to note that not all keyword sponsored ads are necessarily PPC. Some Web sponsored ads
are CPM (cost-per-thousand, based on reach or “eyeballs”). For example, Facebook
offers CPM advertising. But for the purposes of this study, the term PPC is an
understandable designation for labeling ads and is used accordingly.

AFFILIATE MARKETING
Beyond advertising choices, IT companies do decide upon affiliate partnerships. The
wealth of affiliate advertisements resulting from specific company media searches
demonstrates the growth in collaborative strategies synonymous with Web 2.0 and 21st
century approaches to innovation success (McGregor, 2009). Affiliate listing results have
not been included in this report, as they exceed its purpose. That is, not all affiliates (or
affiliate programs) are created equal. Some PPC listings by parties may be close alliance
sales partners for the IT companies, some may merely be third-party retailers who carry,
for example, some Microsoft products. In many cases, PPC listings are presented by
head-hunters or customer-companies hiring employees experienced with the forenamed
company’s products/services. It is conceivable that some PPC advertisers may not even
be authorized, or knowingly allowed, to use the brand names. Likewise, there is the
possibility that a company’s product or daughter brand sponsors served links. However, if

29

the company does not obviously claim the brand as its own, it must be ignored for the
purposes of this study. Logically, even if a company does make a “green” promotional
claim through its daughter brand, if it does not also claim the daughter brand in
promotions, then it must be assumed that the mother brand does not desire to project a
relationship (whether the desire concerns “green” associations or not is left unknown -
only the divide is purposeful). Therefore, this report concentrates on listings obviously
traceable to the IT companies themselves.

Social networking software profile pages present similar problems, such as many profile
listings, with none clearly created to fit and promote the IT brand, by the IT company.
That is, many profile pages appear “unprofessional, not designed” relative to, for
example, company Web sites. It is certainly worth considering that some IT companies
may desire profiles to look authentically created by customers and fans, to propagate that
very spirit among others. For example, it is conceivable that Microsoft may want a
MySpace page to look as if it were created by a common MySpace user, to represent her
affinity for Microsoft products, to put the focus on customers and fans rather than the
company. Affirming authenticity for such stealth marketing is beyond the purposes of
this study, and therefore questionable sources are removed. Lest it seem a biased and
haphazard method of judgment, here are the criteria by which social network software
profiles, as well as apparent PPC keyword ads and landing pages, are measured:
1. Use of the IT company’s official logo
2. URLs containing the company’s name, for example, www.sap.com/landing_page,
or www.facebook.com/sap
3. Copyright statements with the IT company’s name, for example, “Copyright 2009
SAP All rights reserved”
4. Visual and tone consistency with other “official” company promotions, for
example Web site home page
Profile and landing pages which did not automatically measure up to such criteria were
automatically disqualified from the study.

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As discussed, more IT companies that did have green messaging also presented more
social networking software customized-profile pages than did other companies. It may be
tempting to expect that these IT companies (with green-messaging and greater social
media representation) have an end-consumer face to the market, eliciting social
networking media. However, two giants with consumer- (and B2B-) facing sides,
Microsoft and Adobe, did not make green claims in the media studied.

JUDGING
A total of 184 total promotions were observed, judged and categorized by the author.
There were many duplicate promotions (for example, ads leading to duplicate landing
pages); however, unlike the content analysis of Carlson, Grove and Kangun, duplicate
promotions here were not discarded (p. 32). This was because of the purpose here to
count instances of green Web promotions – regardless of repeatability. In this study, total
broadcasts were more important than unique, disparate messaging.

The author of this study was the sole judge of content. Obviously, this can raise questions
of bias. Certainly, it can be insinuated that it was the author’s nature to find green
promotions that might be overlooked by the casual observer. However, it was not a goal
here to replicate the common or Hedonic consumers’ potential discovery of IT industry
green promotions. Rather, a purpose was to capture what, if any, Web green promotions
were being conducted by top IT companies within a narrow timeframe. Another, future
beneficial study could attempt consumer awareness or attitudes toward such promotions.
Likewise, a study on perceived relevance, by IT customers toward IT company green
claims, could be of future interest. Both of these are beyond the purposes of this study,
however.

Rather than attempt causal observance of green promotions, the author of this study
carefully scoured (often twice or thrice for confirmation) the promotional content to
capture any and all green claims. This purposefully skewed search approach by the author
should be perceived as no more biased than that in “Shades of Green: A
Multidimensional Analysis of Environmental Advertising.” In that study, the authors
purposefully researched ads selected by a “green marketing consultant” to study the

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nature of green ads (p. 23). Here in this study, the author himself scrutinized Web
promotions to discover green claims.

A (reduced) trial run for this study’s research portion was even conducted by the author
one week prior to the specific time of research to affirm research systematization and
comprehensiveness, or to discover flaws in methodology. Typology and categorization
were also observed and approved by two doctors, professors of marketing at Georgia
State University J. Mack Robinson College of Business, two days in advance of the
actual research. Likewise, individual documentation of specific company results was
reviewed and approved by same professors for depth of detail immediately following
actual coding and reporting.

TIME LAPSE
A sensitive aspect of the Web is time required to alter communications. Obviously, Web
promotions do not require advance insertion as do monthly periodicals. Change can be as
instantaneous as desired.

To attempt to control at least changes in time and resulting bias, the research was
conducted over only three days. Web 1.0 and social media research was conducted over
Saturday, April 4, and Sunday, April 5, 2009. All Second Life research was conducted on
Monday, April 6, 2009. The purpose here was to capture a horizontal assessment of green
Web promotions within a narrow snapshot of time. This timely value was referenced by
researchers Williams and Pei whose typology was designed “…to control for potential
fluctuations due to timing differences when comparing results based on Web Site
information…” (Williams, Pei, p. 396). It is worth noting that later in the same month
was Earth Day (April 22). Likewise, just before this content analysis began, lights went
out worldwide for Earth Hour on the evening of March 28 (“Sydney,” 2009). One would
expect advertising studied during this time to be abundant – perhaps even biased.
However a goal of this research was to study green advertising and greenwashing. If a
certain period yielded more results than another, the proliferation could boost this study.
Regardless, no green messaging in this study mentioned these events, nor were there any
inconsistent communications suggesting event-specific advertising.

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ADDITIONAL POTENTIAL FOR BIAS
Web content is often greatly impacted and altered by automated efforts. Cookies enable
Web sources to glean a user’s specific information and preferences, and contextually
served ads change based upon algorithms or user search terms. Web search fields
“remember” previous terms searched and offer these again. What’s more, the Internet is
starting to move into its next phase – Web 3.0 – which threatens greater invasion of
privacy to more accurately serve listings and advertisements. It also boasts the “semantic
Web” – the ability for algorithms to transcend keyword and terminology affiliations in
spider analysis, moving into semantic analysis and ad serving (Deans, p. 13). That is,
content will be automatically assessed based on the semantics of the messaging. For
example, content searches for “tree houses” will serve relevant ads rather than ads about
“houses with trees.”

Social networking software achieved more bias than any other examinations of this study.
Specifically, LinkedIn and Facebook, are very biased – searches are not allowed without
logging in with a user profile. Login access requires full profile creation, including
personal information (allowing the social software to contextually suggest links on
provided information). Therefore, keyword ads are served based on a user profile’s
recorded background information and interests – as well as search terms. In spite of this
bias, social networking software was deemed too critical to Web 2.0 advertising to be
excluded from this study (and in fact interesting results were provided).

By heavily drawing from the content analysis of Carlson, Grove and Kangun, their
emphases on “objectivity, systematization, sampling methods, and reliability” were
hopefully to a degree inherited in this study (p. 29). Regardless, the potential forms of
bias discussed here are simultaneously indications of the Web’s unique strengths – and
therefore grant great importance on such research. As Williams and Pei state, “Space
allocation… provides Web Sites with an advantage... companies have the advantage
when using Web Sites of being able to establish a one-to-one relationship with a
stakeholder… This ability to communicate… immediately enables a closer and more
personal relationship between the stakeholder and entity in question” (p. 393).

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RESULTS:
16 total disparate investigations (or visual fields to examine) occurred per IT company
(total 256 investigations), but many more disparate promotional possibilities existed (in
the form of total potential results listed on one page). That is, for each company,
examinations occurred on Web site home pages, search engine results listings, social
media search results listings, etc., totaling 16 investigations each. One positive find
resulting from one company search, for purposes of this report, was considered to be one
promotion, or one claim. Claims were checked for substantiation, but click-throughs were
not counted as disparate promotions or claims themselves. These were viewed merely as
the support documents to the original promotion or claim (hence, results counts did not
include separate, support iterations).

A total of 184 promotions were observed and recorded. 10.9% of these contained green
claims (20 green promotions total; see exhibits below, or comprehensive spreadsheet in
appendix). Only three green claims (from three different companies) were judged to not
be substantiated (hence “greenwashing”). This result was contrary to the original research
hypothesis predicting that the “Majority of ‘Green’ messaging, in IT Web advertising, is
vague or unsupported” (see exhibit 4 above). These three, unsubstantiated claims (within
maximum allotment of two click-throughs), coincidentally also all achieved “process”
claim-orientation judgments, as well as a “narrative” claim-focus. It follows logically that
unsubstantiated claims did not project quantification or monetary claims focus, since
accurate, pertinent numbers would have theoretically proved substantiation for the initial
green claims. Regardless, results were virtually equal between total number of green
quantitative/monetary-focused claims versus narrative-focused claims. Process
orientations also dominated overall green-claims results with 12 (out of 20). The next
most-common result was image-orientation, which achieved six green claims.
Unfortunately only two claims were judged to be “customer orientation” (both from
VMWare; see VMWare Web site promotion in appendix). Theoretically, substantiated,
customer-orientation claims would prove the most value to customers and greater
industry. This result was consistent with the original research hypothesis predicting that

34

“The ‘Green’ advertising majority’s content-orientation is not customer-focused.” (see
exhibit 4 above).

Exhibit 5: Green promotions content results
TOTAL GREEN WEB PROMOTIONS FOR TOP 20 IT COMPANIES
Content Orientations
12 Process Orientation 60.00% of all green claims were judged process orientation
6 Image Orientation 30.00% of all green claims were judged image orientation
0 Environmental Fact
2 Customer orientation 10.00% of all green claims were judged customer orientation
0 Combination
20 TOTAL (Orientations) 37.50% of top 20 IT companies had green Web promotions
Content Focus
9 Quantitative/Monetary
11 Narrative (Instructional or Theoretical)
20 TOTAL (Focus) 7.81% is the yield of green promotions from investigations
20 GREEN COMMUNICATIONS TOTAL 10.87% of all promos contain green msg

2 Claim-Substantiation AVG#of click-thrus 2 avg click-throughs per green claim
0 Vague description green claims
3 Unsupported/no claim-substantiation 15.00% of all green claims were unsubstantiated
3 VAGUE/UNSUPPORTED TOTAL 1.63% of all promos contained unsubstantiated green claims
17 SUBSTANTIATED CLAIMS TOTAL 85.00% of all green promos had substantiated claims
164 Promotions contain no green msg 89.13% of all promos had no green messaging
184 Total Promotions 9.24% of all promos were substantiated green claims
256 Total investigations 71.88% is the yield of promotions from investigations

Interestingly, although IT companies that made green claims represented only 37.5% (six
out of 16) of all companies studied, more of these IT companies had customized social
networking software profile pages (LinkedIn, Facebook and MySpace), than companies
with no green messaging. The six IT companies that did have green promotions also
occupied a total of 24 customized social networking software profile pages (five of which
contained green messaging), while the other 10 companies had only 17 customized
profile pages among them total. Similarly, companies that did make green claims also
had more keyword sponsored ads overall in Weblog search engines (Technorati and
Digg) than did companies with no green messaging. The green-message companies
featured nine ads (three of which contained green messaging), compared to seven ads
among the other companies.

Only one green advertisement was observed in virtual world Second Life (the same one,
twice). Following the rules of the typology, signage was viewed in-world on the

35

Autodesk island (after teleporting, to the same location, from two organic listings). The
signage promoted a lecture on environmental importance. Hence, this research
demonstrated that even Second Life is used for accessible presentation of green claims.

Exhibit 6: Media platform advertising results
Media results for: All (6) IT companies who did have green web promotions
Corporate Social Networking Weblog Tagging Virtual
Web Site Software Totals: submission Media SEM PPC Worlds Web 1.0 Web 2.0 AGGREGA
HOME Custom PPC ad Second TE
PAGE pg total: totals: sites total: Total: Total: Life Total: Total: TOTAL:
25% 15% 10% 15% 10% 15% 10% 40% 60% 100%
Green Communications Total: 5 3 2 3 2 3 2 8 12 20
33% 13% 67% 33% 20% 30% 67% 32% 24% 27%

Claim-Substantiation #of click-thrus: Average = 2
0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%
Vague/Unsupported claims total: 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3
0% 13% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 6% 4%

29% 0% 12% 18% 12% 18% 12% 47% 53% 100%
Substantiated claims total: 5 0 2 3 2 3 2 8 9 17
33% 0% 67% 33% 20% 30% 67% 32% 18% 23%

19% 39% 2% 11% 15% 13% 2% 31% 69% 100%
Promotions contain no green msg: 10 21 1 6 8 7 1 17 37 54
67% 88% 33% 67% 80% 70% 33% 68% 76% 73%

20% 32% 4% 12% 14% 14% 4% 34% 66% 100%
Total Promotions: 15 24 3 9 10 10 3 25 49 74
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Media results for: All (10) IT companies who had no green web promotions
25% 15% 8% 6% 15% 15% 15% 40% 60% 100%
n% = out of aggregate
n% = out of total promotions

Results show that companies that did make green claims were simultaneously more likely
to communicate more overall in Web 2.0 media. 66% of the communications from green-
message companies were in Web 2.0 (49 total for six companies, 12 of which contained
green messages), while only 60% of the other 10 companies’ communications were in
Web 2.0 platforms (66 total). Companies that did make green claims also averaged 8.2
promotions each in Web 2.0 platforms (12.3 promotions each in overall Web media),
while companies without green messaging averaged only 6.6 Web 2.0 promotions each
(11 promotions each overall). A partial explanation for this increase in promotions
overall for green-message companies may be real estate: more media, more ads and more
pages allow for more content - including green claims presumably secondary to primary
product or service offerings.

36

An original research hypothesis predicted that “‘Green’ advertising representation
(quantity) exists equally in Web 2.0 media as in Web 1.0 channels” (see exhibit 4 above).
This paper has already discussed the research proven problems with attempting such a
divide – namely that many Web 2.0 technologies (such as widgets or blogs) now exist on
traditional Web media channels (such as Web sites). Likewise, the amount of investigated
visual fields and specific media channels were not equal between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0
categories (see exhibits here, or comprehensive spreadsheet in appendix). These Web
terms aid in understanding the history and roles of the Internet, but ultimately challenge
research categorizations such as these. That said, results showed that green
communications in Web 1.0 platforms represented 12% of all (16) IT companies’ Web
1.0 promotions (8 out of 69), while Web 2.0 green communications represented 10% of
all Web 2.0 promotions (12 out of 115).

Exhibit 7: Total advertising results
Media results for: All 16 IT companies
Corporate Social Networking Weblog Tagging Virtual
Web Site Software Totals: submission Media SEM PPC Worlds Web 1.0 Web 2.0 AGGREGA
HOME Custom PPC ad Second TE
PAGE pg total: totals: sites total: Total: Total: Life Total: Total: TOTAL:
25% 15% 10% 15% 10% 15% 10% 40% 60% 100%
Green Communications Total: 5 3 2 3 2 3 2 8 12 20
12% 7% 17% 19% 7% 11% 11% 12% 10% 11%

Claim-Substantiation #of click-thrus: Average = 2
0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100% 100%
Vague/Unsupported claims total: 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3
0% 7% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 3% 2%

29% 0% 12% 18% 12% 18% 12% 47% 53% 100%
Substantiated claims total: 5 0 2 3 2 3 2 8 9 17
12% 0% 17% 19% 7% 11% 11% 12% 8% 9%

23% 23% 6% 8% 15% 15% 10% 37% 63% 100%
Promotions contain no green msg: 37 38 10 13 25 24 17 61 103 164
88% 93% 83% 81% 93% 89% 89% 88% 90% 89%

23% 22% 7% 9% 15% 15% 10% 38% 63% 100%
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Total Investigations: 48 48 48 32 32 32 16 80 176 256
n% = out of aggregate
n% = out of total promotions

Web 1.0 platform promotions in general had virtually equal quantities among the
company groupings, as both green-message companies and their counterparts averaged
just over four promotions each in Web sites and search engines. It also bears explanation
that Web site home pages (labeled here a Web 1.0 media platform) in this study were
given three disparate positions of promotions (primary banner graphic, textual description
or body copy, and skyscraper or other image ad). While this may be viewed as unequal

37

weighting, it is the real estate consumed, and relative importance of the medium to
corporate marketing, that warrants a Web site’s heightened status. However, even on a
home page, as “traditional” as it gets for Web media promotions, Web 2.0 technologies
may be incorporated. For example, blog entries, widgets or mash-ups can potentially be
integrated into a corporate home page (Deans, p. 198). Hence, there may be no true, clean
way to separate Web 1.0 from 2.0 media today (in fact a truer study may be to compare e-
promotions today to those of 10 years ago).

IV. Concluding Thoughts
None of the examined ads focused on software products whose primary offering was
green reporting. To be fair, the purpose of this research was not to find these products.
Rather, it was to better understand the amount, and nature, of green claims in IT industry
Web promotions. Specifically this comprehensive paper has discussed:
• Alignments between 21st century, Web 2.0, business and R&D approaches
• The modern green movement and innovations in industry
• The IT industry and green IT reporting services
• IT industry Web promotions and green claims
It appears from this research that modern software and programming companies are not
harnessing a strategic alignment with Internet channels to aid environmental concerns.
Nonetheless, these companies are using Web 2.0 approaches to attract consumers,
provide them with professional content (including environmental facts and information),
and interact with customers in interesting – perhaps innovative – ways.

- Jacob J. Aull, April 29, 2009

38

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