1. Increasing Accessibility in Educational
Opportunities in a Competitive World
By
Goolam Mohamedbhai

2. Outline of Presentation
1. Introduction
2. Regional Inequity in Access to Higher
Education
3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity
4. Tuition Fees: Effects on Access & Equity
5. Excellence & Globalization v/s Access &
Equity in HE
6. Conclusions

3. 1. Introduction
HE benefits the individual in upward social mobility
HE also helps in economic & social development of countries
& in creating a knowledge society.
Every effort must therefore be made to widen access to HE,
make it as inclusive as possible and ensure its quality
However, disparities in economic development among
countries create global inequities in access to & quality of HE.
Within countries, achieving inclusiveness is hampered by
inequities that exist in any country – could be racial, ethnic,
religious, social
Addressing those inequities – at global, regional & national
levels ‐ poses great challenges to policy makers, HEIs and
society
It also raises issues of ethics, values and justice

4. 2. Regional Inequity in Access to HE (1)
Tertiary Gross Enrolment by Region
70
60
50
40
30 1999
2006
20
10
0
SSA S&W E Asia L Am & C&E N Am &
Asia &P Car Eu W Eu
Source: UIS 2008
..…./2

5. 2. Regional Inequity in Access to HE (2)
Very large inequities in access to HE between developed
and developing countries
Since human capital is the most important resource in the
global knowledge economy, access to HE must be
increased significantly in developing countries
Real danger that HE benefits mainly developed countries,
while it is the developing ones that needs it most
How to Redress Regional Inequity in Access to HE?
1. Increase enrolment in public HEIs
Most public HEIs already overcrowded. No public funds for
physical expansion. Quality suffers.
……./3

6. 2. Regional Inequity in Access to HE (3)
2. Create New HEIs
Main challenges are staffing and academic resources . Quality
suffers. Example.
3. Cost Sharing
Introduction of tuition & user fees to make up for diminishing
public funding. Still politically & socially sensitive issue
4. Private HEIs
Large increase in numbers in most developing countries. Does
help, but not accessible to the poor. Commercial approach to
HE, not all of quality, can weaken public HEIs
5. Through CBHE (twinning, franchising, branch campuses, DL)
Rapid increase over past decade, especially with improvement in
ICT. Not accessible to the poor. Quality in some cases dubious.
Compete with local public HEIs. ……../4

7. 2. Regional Inequity in Access to HE (4)
Issues
Because of challenges in provision of more public funds for
HE, dramatic increase in access to HE through public HEIs
may not be possible
Most developing countries will have to resort to private,
fee paying HEIs or CBHE to increase access to HE
Would this not create greater inequity in access at national
level?
Since hardly any research is done at private HEIs or CBHE
institutions, would not knowledge production be even
more adversely affected in developing countries?
Can CBHE take into account local social & cultural factors?

8. 3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity in HE (1)
Inequities exist in every society, developed or developing
HE was originally elitist. It has remained so to a large
extent, even in developed world. It has a tendency to
perpetuate systemic inequities over generations
In developing world, access to HE in rural areas very
limited, but also in urban areas because of limited capacity
In developed world, students from disadvantaged strata
either avoid HE by choice or enrol in less prestigious
institutions
Several countries have used affirmative action to redress
inequity in access to HE
……/2

9. 3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity in HE (2)
Addressing Gender Inequity in Kenya
Educated women can play an important role in development of
SSA. Empowerment of women through education is a
development strategy for SSA
For cultural & other reasons, women are under‐represented in
HE in SSA, especially in S&T fields.
Affirmative action applied by Kenya to redress HE gender
inequity
Joints Admissions Board (admits students in all public unis)
lowers number of points required at entry to HE for females
At U of Nairobi, female undergraduate enrolment increased from
23% in 1991/92 to 34% in 2006/07
Kenyatta Uni further reduces entry point for female enrolment in
S&T areas. In 2007 overall female enrolment was 50%
........./3

10. 3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity in HE (3)
Addressing Racial Inequity in Malaysia
Malaysia’s racial composition is roughly: Malays 66%, Chinese
25%, Indians 8%. Chinese have always been economically strong,
the Malays until recently were poor. Malays mostly in agriculture
& semi‐skilled jobs, Chinese in business & professions
1970 HE enrolment : Malays 40%, Chinese 49%, Indians 7%
Govt’s affirmative action: enrolment in each subject in public
HEIs to be proportional to racial composition. All admissions
controlled by govt, no race quotas in HEIs made public
One year pre‐university course for Malays also introduced
2007 intake to HEIs: Malays 62%, Chinese 32%, Indians 6%
There has been a significant increase in no. of Malay
professionals
Affirmative action led to Chinese students studying abroad &
dramatic increase in private & CBHE institutions ......../4

11. 3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity in HE (4)
Addressing Social Inequity in India
Hindus in India have a rigid caste system
‘Lower Castes’ (LC) represent about 24% of India’s population.
They are the poorest & are under‐represented in all institutions
India’s post‐independence Constitution established a quota of
22.5% for LC in all public institutions, but individual States may
increase the quota provided it does not exceed 50%
Caste of a Hindu is fixed at birth and cannot be changed, even if
s/he changes religion
The LC quota system is applied to all public HEIs, including the
elite IITs, IIMs and medical Colleges
The LC quota is highly controversial & emotional in India & has
been legally challenged but without success
......./5

12. 3. Affirmative Action in Addressing Inequity in HE (5)
Issues Regarding Affirmative Action
Affirmative action has been found to redress inequity in a
number of countries (e.g. gender in Africa), but it can also
perpetuate the very condition it is trying to redress (e.g. Caste
system in India)
How to ensure that, in an age of global competition where
striving for excellence through meritocracy prevails, affirmative
action does not affect the quality of HE?
Should not affirmative action be applied at lower levels of
education (primary, secondary) where the roots of inequity lie?
Because of social dynamics, race, religion, ethnicity or caste is not
always easy to define. How does the State allow for that?
Once introduced, when should affirmative action be stopped?

13. 4. Tuition Fees: Effects on Access & Equity (1)
Because of lack of funding, most public HEIs in developing
countries are now introducing tuition fees
In most developing countries majority of those admitted to
public HEIs are from upper echelons of society & can afford fees.
But the poorest cannot.
Tuition fees in many countries can make HE less accessible to
the poor & therefore deepen inequity
Loan schemes introduced but its management not always
effective
Grants & scholarships to needy students possible, but ‘needy’
not easy to define
Introduction of ‘parallel programmes’ in several African
institutions (Kenya, Uganda), but this has long term
implications

14. 4. Tuition Fees: Effects on Access & Equity (2)
What can be Done?
Introduction of tuition fees in developing countries seems
inevitable
It is a politically & socially sensitive issue, and should be
introduced after careful study to ensure equity
To learn from successful implementation of student loan
schemes in some countries
To be cautious about introducing ‘parallel programmes’ as
a means of financing a HEI

15. 5. Excellence & Globalization v/s Access & Equity in HE (1)
Quest for excellence in HE at national level has always existed
e.g. Oxford & Cambridge (UK), Grandes Ecoles (France), IITs
(India)
Access to such public‐funded HEIs almost exclusively from best
secondary schools (usually private) and from upper social strata
of society ‐ those who can afford cost of competing to get
access.
Inequity in composition of student population is glaring.
Success is guaranteed, both from the HEI & in achieving highest
social positions – hence perpetuating systemic inequities
More recently, globalisation is driving many governments to
promote excellence in their HE system, e.g. Malaysia, where
some public unis are designated research unis, and there is
competition for attaining ‘apex university’ status

16. 5. Excellence & Globalization v/s Access & Equity in HE (2)
Globalization has now pushed excellence in HE to global level
through global ranking & ‘world class’ universities
Objective is competition in attracting the best brains, acquiring
more funding & excelling in knowledge production
Rankings favour already well‐established, well endowed HEIs in
developed world.
HEIs in developing countries cannot compete based on criteria
used (see chart). Inequity in HE at global level exacerbated.
Globalization also promotes HE as tradable & commercial
commodity through WTO/GATS. This encourages CBHE in
developing countries, not accessible to poor students because of
fees charged
......./3

17. Top 200 Ranked Universities (2009)by Region
* Africa, Latin America, China & India

18. 4. Excellence & Globalization v/s Access & Equity in HE (4)
Issues
Is excellence synonymous with quality? Are similar criteria
used for both?
Should developing countries create centres of excellence
or should they concentrate on increasing access and
promoting quality in all their HEIs?
How does competition at global level affect collaboration
among HEIs, an important ethos of HE?
Should universities in developing countries aim to be
globally ranked? If yes, why? And at what cost?

19. Conclusions
Because of rapid increase in private HE & CBHE, control
mechanisms must be set up to ensure their quality
Effective widening of equitable access to HE requires
intervention at lower levels of education
Because of perceived unfairness of affirmative action, once
introduced it must be continuously monitored and adjusted as
society evolves
Admitting students in HEIs using affirmative action must be
accompanied by measures to ensure their success
Tuition fees in developing countries should be introduced with
caution & accompanied by safety nets protecting poor students
Promoting excellence in HE in developing countries is laudable
but the criteria used must be locally relevant

20. THANK YOU