Introduction to philosophy

Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar, GCUF) @AksAina
INTRODUCTIONTO
PHILOSOPHY
Hina Jalal
(PhD Scholar, GCUF)

Philosophy
The term “philosophy” has been derived from Greek words “Philea”, and “Sophia”. Phillea means Love of
and Sophia means wisdom. So that, derivative meaning of philosophy is “love of wisdom”.
• What is Philosophy
Philosophy is critical and comprehensive thought, that includes both an analytic and synthetic mode of
operation. Philosophy as a critical and comprehensive process of thought involves resolving confusion,
unmasking assumptions, revealing presuppositions, distinguishing importance, testing positions, correcting
distortions, looking for reasons, examining world-views and questioning conceptual frameworks. It also
includes dispelling ignorance, enriching understanding, broadening experience, expanding horizons,
developing imagination, controlling emotion, exploring values, fixing beliefs by rational inquiry, establishing
habits of acting, widening considerations, synthesizing knowledge and questing for wisdom.

1. "Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather than a body of conclusions
about experience." Edgar S. Brightman
2. "If is not the specific content of the conclusions, but the spirit and method by which they are reached,
which entitles them to be described as philosophical..." Clifford Barrat
3. "Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy is general theory of
criticism."C. J. Ducasse.
2. Philosophy is Comprehensive Synthetic Science
The following definitions of philosophy emphasize its synthetic aspect:
1. "Philosophy, like science, consists of theories of insights arrived at as a result of systematic reflection." —
Joseph A. Leighton
2. "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science." Herbert Spencer
3. "Our subject is a collection of science, such as theory of knowledge, logic, cosmology, ethics and
aesthetics, as well as a unified survey." Roy Wood Sellars
Philosophy is a Critical Method of Approaching Experience

(1) Field of Philosophical Sciences. The scope of philosophy includes different philosophical sciences such
as metaphysics, epistemology, logic, semantics, philosophy of science, axiology, aesthetics, ethics,
philosophy of religion, political philosophy, philosophy of education, philosophy of history, economic
philosophy etc. All these sciences are important parts of the field of philosophy.
(2) Field of Philosophy as Comprehensive Science. Philosophy is the science of sciences, the mother of all
sciences. From this point of view, its scope includes the criticism and synthesis of the postulates and
conclusions of the physical and social sciences.
(3) Subject Matter of Philosophy. The scope of philosophy clarifies its subject matter. Its subject matter
includes the conclusions and postulates of all the physical and social sciences besides their general
problems.
Scope of Philosophy

BRANCHES
OF
PHILOSOPHY
Branches
Epistemology Ontology
Cosmogony.
Cosmology.
Ontology.
Philosophy of
self.
Eschatology.
Axiology
Ethics.
Aesthetics.
Logic studies
truth.
Philosophies
of Social
Science.
Social
Philosophy.
Political
Philosophy.
Philosophy of
History.
Philosophy of
Economics.
Philosophies
of Education.
Philosophy of
Sciences.
Semantics.

(1) Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which
arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is the
most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits
of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc.
(2) Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows:
(i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created, or is it eternal? How was world created? Why was
it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of cosmogony.
(ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both one and many?
(iii) Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one or is it many or is it both one and many?
If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological questions.
(iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What is its
relation with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are problems of
philosophy of self.
(v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form the
subject matter of this branch of philosophy.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

(3) Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the following
three branches:
(i) Ethics.
(ii) Aesthetics.
(iii) Logic studies truth.
(4) Philosophy of Sciences. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the
postulates and conclusions of different sciences.
(5) Philosophies of Social Science. The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to
different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:
(i) Philosophies of Education.
(ii) Social Philosophy.
(iii) Political Philosophy.
(iv) Philosophy of History.
(v) Philosophy of Economics.
(6) Semantics. It is concerned with the determination of the meanings of different words used in different
languages
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Education and Philosophy
Philosophy and education are two different fields of studies, but they
are closely linked together, because without any rational thinking
prior to education, the whole educational process is directionless.
Philosophy is theoretical aspect of education, while education is
application of philosophy. It is rightly said that education would be
blind effort without philosophy. Both undertake the systematic
discussion of educational problems at philosophical level.
According to the Ross “Philosophy and education are like the sides
of a coin”.
Sir John Adams stated that “Educaiton is the dynamic side of
philosophy”.
John Dewey said that “Philosophy may be defined as the theory of
education in its most general phases”.
RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy and Aims of Education
The answer to every educational question is ultimately
influenced by our philosophy of life. Although few
formulate it, every system of education must have an aim,
and the aim of education is relative to the aim of life.
Philosophy formulates what it conceives to be the end of
life; education offers suggestions how this end is to be
achieved.
Ancient Period.
Medieval Period.
Modern Period.
Philosophy and the Curriculum
Nowhere is this dependence of education on
philosophy more marked than in the question of the
curriculum. In the first chapter of his work on
Education Spencer asserts that in the determination
of the curriculum "our first step must obviously be
to classify, in the order of their importance, the
leading kinds of activity which constitute human
life."
Philosophy and Teacher
Philosophy has a great influence on the teacher both in the area
of thinking and behaving. Really speaking, a teacher is not a
teacher alone. He is a philosopher also. In other words, a teacher
himself has a philosophy of his own and he influences children
accordingly. As such, his philosophy of life should be such
which develops the individuality of children to the fullest
extent.
Philosophy and Method of Teaching
As with curriculum, so with method. The outstanding
problem in educational method at the present time is
the extent to which, if at all, the teacher should
intervene in the educative process, and this raises
philosophical issues. Non-intervention is justified for
two quite different reasons, either because of the
nature of the pupil's endowment or because of his
environment.
Philosophy and Elements of Education

FOUR GENERAL PHILOSOPHIES
Two of these general or world
philosophies, idealism and
realism, are derived from the
ancient Greek philosophers, Plato
and Aristotle. Two are more
contemporary,
pragmatism and existentialism.
However, educators who share
one of these distinct sets
of beliefs about the nature of
reality presently apply each of
these world philosophies in
successful classrooms. Let us
explore each of these
metaphysical schools of thought.

Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only
thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting; the focus is
on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in
his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental
world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of appearance,
the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, which is changing, imperfect, and
disorderly.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral
excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature,
history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion,
and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify
knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic (The fallacy of composition arises when
one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole) are
used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed
through imitating examples and heroes.
Idealism

Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of
physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a
student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the
scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the diligent
and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate
form had to be understood, which does not change.
The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and
mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating
use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through
demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically,
using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and
distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Realism

• For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American
philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that
reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they
arise.
• The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but
rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
• John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must
adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All
learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work
cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order.
Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
• For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having
students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe
that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
Pragmatism

• The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical world has no
inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external
standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that
existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we
must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals,
as we make meaning of our lives.
• Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism.
His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the
finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is
not guaranteed in an afterlife, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the
more austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end
of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning.
Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement.
• Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such
educators want the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization.
They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.
Existentialism

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES
Perennialism
The word “perennial” means ever-lasting. Perennialism is an educational theory that draw from realism. For
Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of
Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. Robert Maynard
Hutchins (1929-1951), Mortimer J. Adler (1902-2001), and Jacques Maritain (1882-1973) are the founders of
perennialism. Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who
further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
Assumptions
• Despite different environment human nature remains the same everywhere, hence education should be
same everywhere
• Man should be direct through its instinctual nature
• Educational task should be import eternal truth
• Education is not an imitation of life but a preparation of life
• Students should study the great literature of philosophy, history, and science.
• Students should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him about world permanencies
• Education should stimulate humans to think critically and thoughtfully.

Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic,
disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should
teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational
philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the
objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically.
Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and
discipline.
Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This
approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley took progressivist
approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G.
Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).
Fundamentals of Essentialists
• Learning of its nature, involves hard work and often unwilling application. Hence, it needs disciplining of mind.
• Curriculum should have re-examined. It should include the essentials of knowledge beside of 3Rs.
• The essentialists hold that racial heritage constitute the experience of the millions and it is more important than the
experience of individual.
• Essentialism emphasizes on the retention of the traditional methods of mental disciplines such as “method of learning”.
• The initiatives in education should lie with teacher rather than pupil. Teacher is the center of educational process.
• Nothing should be imposed in the name of psychology. Essentialists asserted that psychology has not yet attained
maturity.
Essentialism

The progressivists believe that there are four basic qualities of human experiences:
• It is dynamic and never static.
• It emerges over period and grows.
• It is not limited to place, and thing.
• It has vast relation with spiritual and material, complex and simple, and emotional and intellectual.
Chief Exponents
Jane Adams, John L. Child, George Count, Boyed H. Bode, George Axtelle, William O. Stanley, Ernest Bayles, Lawrence
G. Thomes, and Fredrick C. Neff.
John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our
citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with
students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
The Basics Principles of Progressivism
• Progressivists believe that there is no ultimate reality. When individual interact with environment the reality changes and
adopt different shapes.
• Progressivists give more importance to experiments. The advocate that students should give opportunities to experiment,
to play, and gain knowledge by doing.
• Progressivists suppose different people have different values in different situation and time. But it does not mean values
changes rapidly.
Progressivism

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social Reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War
II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create
a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was
the means of preparing people for creating this new social order.
The Basics of Reconstructionism
• Education must commit itself here and now to the creation of new social orders that fulfill basic values of culture at the
same time harmonize social and economic forces.
• The new society must be genuine democracy, the major institutions and resources of this new society are controlled by
the people.
• The social and cultural elements should design to effect students, society, and educational institutes.
• The teacher must convince his students about validity and urgency of reconstructionist solution with regards to
democracy.
• The means and ends of education must refashioned in accordance with the demand of present cultural crises and
behavior sciences.
Principles of Reconstructionism
1. The believers of Reconstructionism have five basic philosophies as totality, revolutionary, democracy, selectivity, and
coherence. There are two major premises of reconstructionism as:
2. Society needs constant reconstruction and change.
3. Such social change involves both reconstruction of education and use of education in reconstructing society.

Introduction to philosophy

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