Disaster managemant

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DISASTER MANAGEMANT
Disaster:-
A disaster is a sudden, calamitous eventthat seriously disrupts the functioning of a community
or society and causes human,material, and economicor environmental losses that exceedthe
community’s or society’sability to cope using its own resources.Though often causedby nature,
disasters can have human origins.
VULNERABILITY + HAZARD= DISASTER
CAPACITY
The combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative consequences
of risk results in disaster
VULERABILITY:-
Vulnerability in this context can be definedas the diminished capacity of an individual or group to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recoverfrom the impact of a natural or man-made hazard. The
concept is relative and dynamic. Vulnerability is most often associated with poverty, but it can also
arise when people are isolated, insecure and defenselessin the face of risk, shock or stress.
People differ in their exposure to risk as a result of their social group, gender,ethnic or other identity,
age and other factors. Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: poverty, for example,may mean that
housing is unable to withstand an earthquake or a hurricane,or lack of preparedness may result in a
slower response to a disaster, leading to greater loss of life or prolonged suffering.To determine
people’s vulnerability, two questions need to be asked:
 To what threat or hazard are they vulnerable?

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 What makes them vulnerable to that threat or hazard?
Physical, economic, social and political factors determine people’s level of vulnerability and the extent
of their capacity to resist, cope with and recoverfrom hazards. Clearly, poverty is a major contributor
to vulnerability. Poor people are more likely to live and work in areas exposedto potential hazards,
while they are less likely to have the resourcesto cope when a disaster strikes.
The most vulnerable and why?
Vulnerability
Vulnerability in this context can be definedas the diminished capacity of an individual or group
to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard.
The concept is relative and dynamic. Vulnerability is most often associated with poverty, but it
can also arise when people are isolated, insecure and defenselessin the face of risk, shock or
stress.
People differ in their exposure to risk as a result of their social group, gender,ethnic or other
identity, age and other factors. Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: poverty, for example,
may mean that housing is unable to withstand an earthquake or a hurricane,or lack of
preparedness may result in a slower response to a disaster, leading to greater loss of life or
prolonged suffering.
The reverse side of the coin is capacity, which can be describedas the resourcesavailable to
individuals, households and communities to cope with a threat or to resist the impact of a
hazard. Suchresources can be physical or material, but they can also be found in the way a
community is organized or in the skills or attributes of individuals and/or organizations in the
community.
To determine people’s vulnerability, two questions needto be asked:
 to what threat or hazard are they vulnerable?
 what makes them vulnerable to that threat or hazard?
Counteracting vulnerability requires:
 reducing the impact of the hazard itself where possible (through mitigation, prediction
and warning, preparedness);
 building capacities to withstand and cope with hazards;
 tackling the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty, poor governance,
discrimination, inequality and inadequate accessto resourcesand livelihoods.
In richer countries, people usually have a greater capacity to resist the impact of a hazard. They
tend to be better protected from hazards and have preparedness systems in place. Secure
livelihoods and higher incomes increase resilience and enable people to recovermore quickly
from a hazard.
Disasters jeopardize developmentgains. Equally, development choicesmade by individuals,

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households, communities and governments increase or reduce the risk of disasters.
Examples of potentially vulnerable groups include:
 displaced populations who leave their habitual residence in collectives, usually due to a
sudden impact disaster, such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict, as a coping
mechanism and with the intent to return;
 migrants who leave or flee their habitual residence to go to new places, usually abroad
to seekbetter and safer perspectives;
 returnees– former migrants or displaced people returning to their homes;
 specific groups within the local population, suchas marginalized, excludedor destitute
people;
 young children, pregnant and nursing women, unaccompaniedchildren, widows, elderly
people without family support, disabled persons.
In a disaster, women in general may be affecteddifferently from menbecause of their social
status, family responsibilities or reproductive role, but theyare not necessarily vulnerable. They
are also resourceful and resilient in a crisisand play a crucialrole inrecovery.Genderanalysis
can help to identify those women or girls who may be vulnerable and in what way.

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Types of hazard
Definitionof hazard
Threateningevent, or probability of occurrence ofa potentially damaging phenomenon within a
given time period and area. (Source: EM-DAT).
Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena causedeither by rapid or slow onset
events which can be geophysical (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity),
hydrological (avalanches and floods), climatologically (extreme temperatures, drought and
wildfires), meteorological (cyclones and storms/wave surges) or biological (disease epidemicsand
insect/animal plagues).
Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts,famine, displaced populations,
industrial accidentsand transport accidents) are eventsthat are caused by humans and occurin
human settlement environmental degradation, pollution and accidents.
Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects.
There are a range of challenges,such as climate change,unplanned-urbanization, under-
development/poverty as well as the threat of pandemics,that will shape humanitarian assistance in
the future.These aggravating factors will result in increasedfrequency,complexityand severity of
disasters.

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TYPES OF DISASTER
Researchershave beenstudying disasters for more than a century, and for more than forty years
disaster research has beeninstitutionaliz the University of Delaware's Disaster Research Center.The
studies reflect a common opinion whenthey argue that all disasters can be seenas being human-made,
their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can preventit developing into
a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster
management measures.[6]
Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made,although
complex disasters, where there is no single root cause,are more common in developing countries. A
specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increasesthe impact. A classic example is an
earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding.
Natural disaster
Natural disaster
A naturaldisaster is a consequence when a naturalcalamity affects humansand/orthe built
environment. Human vulnerability,and often a lack of appropriateemergency management,
leads to financial, environmental,or humanimpact. The resultinglossdepends on the capacity
of the populationto supportor resist the disaster: their resilience. This understandingis
concentratedin the formulation: "disastersoccur when hazardsmeet vulnerability". A natural
hazard will hence never resultin a naturaldisasterin areas without vulnerability.

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However, it is possible to reduce the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster
mitigation strategies.Disaster mitigation mainly addressesthe following:
 minimize the potential risks by developing disaster early warning strategies
 prepare and implement developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters,
 mobilize resourcesincluding communication and tele-medicinal services
 to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.
Disaster management, on the other handinvolves:
 pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief management capability
 prediction and early warning
 damage assessment and relief management.
Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involveswith different regions, different
professions and different scientific fields, and hasbecome an important measure for human
and naturesustainabledevelopment.
Man-made disasters
Man-made disasters are disasters resulting from man-made hazards (threats having an element of
human intent, negligence,or error; or involving a failure of a man-made system), as opposed to natural
disasters resulting from natural hazards. Man-made hazards or disasters are sometimes referredto as
anthropogenic.
List of Man –made Disaster
 1 Sociological hazards
o 1.1 Crime
 1.1.1 Arson
o 1.2 Civil disorder
o 1.3 Terrorism
o 1.4 War
 2 Technological hazards
o 2.1 Industrial hazards
o 2.2 Structural collapse
o 2.3 Power outage
o 2.4 Fire

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o 2.5 Hazardous materials
 2.5.1 Radiation contamination
 2.5.2 CBRNs
o 2.6 Transportation
 2.6.1 Aviation
 2.6.2 Rail
 2.6.3 Road
 2.6.4 Space

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Disaster management:
The disaster management include the management cycle:
Disaster management cycle
disaster impact
response
rehabilitation
reconstruction
mitigation
preparedness

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Disasterimpact and response:
The greatest need is the emergencycare,to be given in the first few hours. Since the causalities occur
in mass, the managementis carried out in the following steps:
1. Search, rescue and first aid: it is the uninjured survivors who come to immediate help and
provide first aid.
2. Field care-food to be provided at the place of disaster people are sheltered in tents, schools
and community house.Health resource including doctors, nurses and other volunteers, police,
home guards are deployedto the place. An enquiry centre is established to respond to the
patients, friends, relatives and family members. Deadvictims are identified and adequate
mortuary space is provided.
3. Triage: since the health manpower is in shortage compared to the causalities, the injured
survivors are classified depending upon the severity of injuries and chancesof survival with
medical supervision. This is called as triage approach. First of all people who are trapped under
debris following earthquakes and collapse of buildings are tracked and rescuedby cutting
through the fallen buildings, those marooned in flood are rescuedby boats. Thenthe victims are
classified according to priority and given color coding
I. Black tag- indicates victims who are already dead.
II. Red tag- indicate top priority who have life threatening injuries but can stabilized and have
high probability of survival.
III. Yellow tag- indicate second priority are assigned to victims with injuries and systematic
complications who are able to withstand a wait of 45 to 60 minutes,for medical attention .
IV. Green tag-indicates victims with local injuries without immediate systematic
complications who can wait several hours for treatment.
4. Jagging- the patients are identified with tags which provides the information such as name, age,
contact and the treatment given.
5. Care of the dead-the dead body is removed from the site of disaster, shifted to mortuary,
identified and bereavedfamily members are received.

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Response
This is carried out under following phases.
1. Relief phase: this starts when help or assistance is obtained from outside. Measures are taken
to prevent the occurrence of epidemics. Arrangements are made to provide food, clothes,
shelter and drugs. Measuresshould be taken for factors which can cause the outbreak of
disease such as malnutrition, over-crowding, poor sanitation, displacement of population, lack
of safe water supply, contamination of water, damage to sewerage system,disruption to
routine health programs and displacement of domestic and wild animals. Specialcare should be
taken of vulnerable group that is children, women and elderly.
Rehabilitation:
this should be started from the time of onset of disaster to see that the normal condition of life are
restored to predisaster condition. This consist of improving health measures following the first aid
and medical care of the affectedpeople. The services are as follows:
a) Watersupply: the important and best way of providing water supply is by
chlorination with a residual chlorine concentration of 0.7 ppm. Survey is made to
find out the source of water and the following protective measuresare taken-
 Restrict access to people and animals, if possible, erecta fence and appoint a guard
 Ensure adequate excretadisposal at a safe distance from water source
 Prohibit bathing, washing and animal husbandry, upstream of intake points in rivers
and streams.
B) Food supply:
 Assessing the food supplies after the disaster.
 Gauging the nutritional needsof the effectedpopulation.
 Calculating the daily food rations and need for large population groups.
 Monitoring the nutritional status of the affectedpopulation
 Hygienicfood measuresare implementedto prevent food related outbreaks.
 Food handlers should maintain a high standard of hygiene.
 Personal hand washing practice should be encouraged.
b) improvement of sanitation:
with special emphasis on disposal of human excretaby construction of temporary
trench latrines, separate for men and women. Washing, cleaningand bathing
facilities also to be provided.
d) control of vector: since the flood water provide an opportunity for breeding of the vectors, resulting
in the epidemics of vector borne disease specially in the endemicareas like malaria and dengue,
measures are taken to control the vectors.

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e) care of survivors: efforts are made to reintegrate the survivors of the disaster into the society with
the help of NGO’s, department of social welfare etc.orphaned children should also be taken care off.
Mitigation:
This involves the measuresto lessen the likely effects of emergencies.Thisincludes, dependingupon the
disaster, protection of vulnerable population and structures for example improving the structural
qualities of school, houses, and such other buildings to minimize the medical causalities. Actually
mitigation complication disaster preparedness and disaster response activities.

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Disasterpreparedness
This consist of strengthening the capacity of a community which is continuous involving multisectoral
activities .phases under this stage are-
• 1. Hazard, risk and vulnerability assessments
• 2. Response mechanisms and strategies
• 3. Preparedness
• 4. plan Coordination
• 5. Information management
• 6. Early warning systems
• 7. Resource Mobilization
• 8. Public education, training & rehearsal
• 9. Community based disaster preparedness.
In this phase communications are planned with easily understandable terminology and resource
preparation.
1. Resource preparation- mass human resources are provided by Redcross team AND COMMUNITY
EMERGENCYRESPONSETEAM.
Various CPF Remain ready to help during disaster with manforce of their BN-

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NDRF BnGREATERNOIDA, BHATINDA,KOLKATA,GUWAHTI,MUNDALI,ARAKKONANM,PUNE,GANDHI
NAGAR.NCC(NATIONAL CADET CORE).
Developmentof exercise ofemergencypopulation warning methods with emergencyshelter and
evacuation plan.
2. Materialresource-stockpiling and inventory and maintenance of disaster supplies and
equipment(disaster kit).
DISASTERKIT:itconsist of mainly health kit, first aid kit, school kit, kids kit, domestic kit, sewing kit,
cleaning linen, personal items.
Disaster Mitigation Tool kit:
Kits to Sustain Everyday Life in the event of a disaster: We are giving information for an ideal kit
that might be useful to disaster affectedpeople. Howeverpreparation for this should be done
before hand. The following kits are suggestedin places where people might not have ready access
to many essential supplies for everydaylife as preparation to a disaster:
Health Kit
 1 hand towel
 1 washcloth
 1 hair comb, regular size (not pocket)
 1 nail file or nail clipper
 1 bath-size bar of soap in wrapper
 1 toothbrush in sealed package
 1 large tube of toothpaste
 6 adhesive bandages (such as Band-aids)
Wrap the brand new items in the new hand towel, tie it with string or yarn, and place inside a
sealed, one-liter plastic bag with a zipper closure.
First Aid Medicine Kit
 Sterile Gauze Pads: ( 4x4) 50 Pads
 Adhesive Tape: 6 Rolls, 1/2" or I" x 10yds. or more
 Triple Antibiotic TopicalOintment: 4 Tubes (I oz tubes) Example:Neosporin Ointment
 Aspirin: 325 mg (5 gr) tablets
1. FerrousSulfate Tablets 500 Tablets of 325 mg
2. Children'sMultivitamins with Iron Chewable Tablets 500 Tablets

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3. Adult Multivitamins withIron Tablets 500 Tablets
4. Children'sAcetaminophen Chewable Tablets 300 Tablets of 80mg.
*Where possible, purchase tablets in bottles of 100 or more. No samples are permitted. For
example,if the required number of tablets is 1,000, then collect:
o 1 bottle of 1,000 tablets each,or
o 2 bottles of 500 tablets each,or
o 4 bottles of 300 or 250 tablets each,or
o 8 bottles of 130 tablets each,or
o 10 bottles of lOO tablets each
5. Acetaminophen for Adults --pain reliever
6. Antacid --for treatment of upset stomach / heartburn
7. Mebendazole orThiabendazole --for intestinal worm infection
8. Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim--antibacterial for adults and children
9. Tetmosol Soap --for treatment of scabies for adults and children
10. Oral Rehydration Salts --to combat dehydration for adults and children
11. Promethazine --for treatment of nausea
12. Metronidazole --fortreatment of intestinal amebiasis (amebic dysentery)
13. Chlorhexidine --antisepticfor adults and children
14. Tolnaftate 1% Antifungal Cream --for skin infections for adults and children
15. RolledBandages --forfirst aid applications
School Kit
In many countries, there are no books, or evenclassrooms. Classes are mobile or held in the open
air. School kits may be the only educational resourcesavailable. Often students must write down
everything the teachersays or writes on a board. Their teacher'sknowledge and their own notes
are their only textbooks. Theyhave difficulty learning without the basic tools in this kit, which is
designed for a variety of ages.
 1 blunt scissors

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 2 pads of 8 ½ "x 11" ruled paper
 1 30-centimeterruler
 1 pencil sharpener
 6 unsharpened pencils with erasers
 1 eraser, 2 ½"
 12 sheets of construction paper
 1 box of 8 crayons
Prepare a 12"x14"(finished size)cloth bag with handles and a closure (Velcro, snap, or button) and
place the items in the bag.
Kit for Kids
Kits with the basic supplies every baby needs.Please be sure that all items are NEW!
 6 cloth diapers
 2 shirts
 2 baby wash cloths
 2 gowns
 2 diaper pins
 1 sweater
 2 receivingblankets
Bundle the items inside one of the receiving blankets and secure it with diaper pins.
Domestic Kit
The following kits are recommendedfollowing a natural disaster. BeddingPack
 2 flat double-bed sheets
 2 pillow cases
 2 pillows
Other necessities:
Linen (new only)
 Sheets

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 Towels
 Blankets
 Pillows
Sewing Kit
Sewing kits foster interdependence rather than dependence.Womencan make clothing in their
own size and in the style of their culture. Cottage industries often grow out of the sewing classes
where women use these kits to practice valuable income-generatingskills.
 3 yards of cotton or cotton-blend solid-color or print fabric (there must be 3 uncut yards of
fabric or the kit is not usable)
 1 pair of sewing scissors
 1 package of needles
 1 spool of thread
 6 matching buttons
Wrap sewing notions in the fabric and tie it with a string or strip of cloth. Place items in a sealed
one-gallon plastic bag with
Cleaning Utilities
These resourcesenable people to begin the overwhelming job of cleaning up after a flood or
hurricane.
 5 gal. bucket with reseal able lid
 Bleach½ gal.
 Scouring pads, 5
 Scrub brush
 Cleaning towels , 18 each
 Sponges ,assorted size-7 pack
 Laundry detergent , 50 oz.
 Household cleaner,12 oz.
 Disinfectant dish soap , 28 oz.
 Clothes pins (50)
 Clothesline, 100ft.x3/16
 Dust masks , 5 packs

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 Latex gloves , package of 2 pr.
 Work gloves, 1 pr.
 Trash bags , 24bg. roll
 Insect repellant, 14 oz.
 Air freshener,9 oz.
Please purchase all liquids in plastic bottles. Be sure to send all new materials that are unopened
when they are sealed or in packages.Put all items in the plastic bucketand seal lid.
Individual Items Neededfor Disaster Response
Though all of the following items are neededat some time,some are in heavier demand than
others.
Baby Items
 Disposable diapers
 Baby wipes
Cleaning Supplies
 Dry laundry detergent
 Dish detergent
 Dry disinfectant
 Mops
 Shovels
 Rubber gloves
 Buckets
 Plastic garbage bags (30 gallon)
 Squeegees
 Pressure water sprayers
 Power scrubbers
 Scoop shovels
 Miscellaneous
 Generators
 Tarps

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 Tents
 Cots
Paper Products
 Paper plates
 Paper cups
 Paper towels
 Toilet paper
Sendall new paper goods that are unopened.
Personal Items
 Soap
 Toothbrushes
 Hand lotion
 Feminine hygiene produces
 Large (adult) diapers
 Insect repellent
 Surgical masks and gloves
 Sunblock (rated 15 or higher)
3. Hospital disaster planning
Chaos cannot be preventedduring the first minutes of a major accidentor disaster. But it has to be the
aim of everydisaster operation plan to keepthis time as short as possible. However,due to a great
number of patients there may be pressure to practice disaster medicine and thereby to reduce the
quality of medical treatment in the interest of a greater number of surviving people. But under all
circumstances -also in the case of disaster - individual medicine in the hospital should be maintained.
Objectives of an appropriate and effective organization in the disaster area are
 the survival and recuperation of as many patients as possible and
 a proportional distribution of patients to several hospitals.
Goals of hospital disaster plan:
 to control the large number of patients and the resulting problems as good as possible

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 by enhancing the capacities of admission and treatment,
 by treating patients based on the rules of individual medicine despite a greater number of
patients
 by ensuring ongoing proper treatment for all patients who were already there
 By a smooth handling of all additional tasks caused by such an event.
 to support the damage area by means of medical consultation, medicaments,infusions,
dressing material and any other necessary medical equipment
In case of an internal major accident (i.e.,fire, explosion) the goals of appropriate, prepared measures
are
1. to protect men,environment and properties as good as possible from any damage
o by putting into effectthe prepared measures,
o by appropriate behavior of the staff who has to know its tasks for this case and has to
give correct instructions,
o by supporting help from outside in an optimal way,
2. to re-establish as quickly as possible an orderly situation enabling a return
3. to normal work conditions.
In addition, a concept for internal as well as for external events has to
be prepared
 for an optimal protection of patients, employees and rescue personnel
 to ensure the required handling for a quick preparedness on bases of the daily organization
structures
 to guarantee a flexible and direct management at all times
 To realize an effective coordination of the available internal and external forces and resources.
Moreover in the course of the project all people involved should become aware of the problematic
nature of the operation and do their best to keepit up to date.

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. The Disaster Plan of a Hospital
It consist of following points:
Basic Requirements
The hospitals needspecial planning for both, mass accident as well as damage area management . This
means that everyhospital, regardless of its size, requires a practicable and well trained plan for such
cases. Thisdoes not only include the enhancement and coordination of the medical performance, but
also important additional tasks which have to be added to the daily practice.That s why a plan for the
organization at a major accident exceedsthe simple task of only alarming additional forces.
Basic requirements are as follows:
 This plan has to be based on existing organization structures as any re-organization holds the
danger of failure
 Keepthe plan as simple as possible but as comprehensive as necessary.
 Have the following principle in mind: The OMP-file is useful for preparation and training but in
case of emergencyonly checklists will be helpful.
Organization and Structure of Management in the Hospital
Everymanagement requires organization and leadership. Especially in times of a crisis an additional
needof immediate action arises and decisions have to be taken in a straight forward way.
Therefore,the following principles and requirements apply:
 a simple and clear organization should be mobilized within short notice - a crisis staff consisting
of 40 members will prove inoperable
 the delegation of competenciesto present executiveswith short ways of decisions

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 headquarters at predefined and prepared site with the required infra-structure
 no re-organization but developing on the existing base
 to ensure that the remaining routine hospital work continues
Alarm and Mobilization
In case of emergencythe alarm has to be quick and reliable. The competence to set the alarm in
motion has to be settled as low as possible in the hierarchy. Otherwise time is lost during early phases
of the plan. This time is decisive and will not be compensated anymore. In conclusion, alarm has to be
given early and generouslyevenupon mere suspicion of a major accident.Delayedmobilization is
irreparable. A surplus of personnel can always be dismissed later at any time. Alerting must neverbe a
privilege of the director of administration or to the head of the physicians.
Mobilized people will have to know where to go (defined meeting point) and what to do. The
communication network which will most likely be overcharged in such situations and must not be
additionally strained. Checklists will be once more the only successful formula.
Competencies andEmergencyRights
Competencieswill influence to a great extendthe ability to act in a timely fashion. The declaration of
an emergencystate in case of a major accident will be indispensable.
It may contain among others:
 premature discharge of patients from hospital
 transfer of patients
 postponement of scheduledadmissions and operations
 release of beds and operations rooms
 preparation and reservation of rooms
 mobilization of personnel
 certain restrictions concerning visitors and patients
 protection of personnel and visitors
 instructions concerningright and duty to inform
 cancellation of the alarm and state of emergency
 instructions for evaluation of the emergencyprocedure
Admissionand Treatment Capacities
There are two common errors which may mislead the number of patients who are to be admitted in
case of major accidents.
Neither the number of beds nor the admission capacities are a decisive criterion. The treatment
capacities are mostly estimated too optimistic by the hospital.

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It is the treatment capacity which is of importance. This capacity can be definedby available operating
rooms and surgical teams as well as available intensive-care-unitplaces. This numbercan be increased
by cancellation of operations, calling additional surgical teams and premature transfer of patients from
the intensive-care units to the normal ward.
Admissionand Registrationof Patients
Admission and registration of patients as it is performed during daily routine will not be possible
because of lack of time.
Therefore,the following is needed:
 a simple and ready-for-use system,
 a method which enables to relate patients clearly to the event, e.g.for investigation authorities
 a reliable identification system of personal properties of the patients,
 a handling method which enables relatives to find the patient in the hospital
We highly suggest the use of the Casualty-Handling-System (CHS),a system developedin Europe..
PredefinedPatient TransportationRoutes
A colored guiding system with respective floor marking can be useful and help to avoid chaos.
Medical Measures Including Sorting
All medical measures have to start at the emergencyentrance.Sorting has priority in order to ensure
decisive instructions. Physicians at the entrance play a key-role and have to be highly trained.
Areas
Enhancedadmission of patients requires an enlargement of suitable spots, if necessaryeven by
changing their function. In addition, the careful marking of additional areas (e.g.room for slightly
injured persons, for the headquarters, for the catering and care of relatives, for the admission of media
people including their identification) has to be prepared. All needshave to be exactlydetermined and
realized on a basis of the existing possibilities.
Communication
Communication is one of the main problems in case of major accidents and disasters. Information has
to be reducedto the most important facts. Wire and radio contacts as well as messengers have to be
integrated into the communication concept. It also has to be taken into account that any systems may
fail. Cellular phones often fail in such situations due to overcharge.Appropriate marking of the staff in
charge is also an important part of communication.
Protective Measures
Securityservices have to be operational at very early stages. Some of their duties are:
 to secure the driveways for authorized parties, namely ambulances,

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 to restrict and strictly control the entry to the hospital
 to direct the entry for authorized persons into appropriate areas, e.g.for relatives or media
people,
 to protect personnel and patients
Medical, Operational and General Resources
Not only the treatment areas but also departments such as radiology, blood bank, laboratory, and
pharmacies have to prepare for more extensive performances.
Internal and External Information
Information does not only include the contact betweenrescue staff and media at the damage area.
Information flow is also important within the hospital. Information chaos with subsequent criticism can
only be prevented by a clear information concept.This concept consists of:
 information of staff
 information of neighboring hospitals and operation partners, such as ambulances, police, etc.
 information of friends and relatives,
 information of media (Media always get their information - the better way is the controlled
one)
Care
Social care of relatives or personnel should not be neglected.Appropriate and available personnel,
psychiatrists and pastors are compulsory elements of such a concept.
Traffic Control and CordoningOff
Traffic control and blocking accessto certain areas help to avoid chaos in the case of a mass accident.
Cooperation with police forces will be necessary.
Substitute Measures and Redundancies
Technicalsystems such as communication systems, powerplant, and medical gas supply may fail, due
to overcharge or other reasons. At this stage of planning such possibilities have to be evaluated and
expected.Counter-measureshave to be prepared.
Task-Books andChecklists
Planning documents are indispensable for training purposes but useless during disaster relief due to
their large volume. Files are for the office!During disaster relief checklists are needed!Simple and easy-
to-use checklists have to be created. Theyhave to be readily available.
Training Concept

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The organization for a mass admission of patients (OMP) is a special concept although it is based upon
the daily structures. A carefully directed training is mandatory. Theoretical education has to be
followed by periodical exercises.Mockdisasters have to be well prepared and executedwithout
announcement.Not to long ago, 25 severelyand 25 slightly injured patients, a number of anxious
relatives und pushing journalists were channeledinto the daily routine of the University Hospital of
Zuerich-Switzerlandas a surprise. Analysis of this event led to improvements in the Hospital Disaster
Plan.
Particularities of Internal Disasters
Measurestaken for the EXTERNALOMP-plan also apply to the case of an INTERNAL emergencycase in
the hospital. The INTERNAL plan is based on the same conceptbut includes some modifications and
additional measures.Again, hold on to the principle Change as little as possible of an existingand good
management.
Additional or special measures are:
 to mark the patients
 special protection measures availability of rescue material such as escape-masks, fire-fighting
equipment and fire-blankets etc.
 exit possibilities incl. elevators and an evacuation plan
 behavior of the personnel and patients with regard to psychological problems.
Evacuation in the Hospital
Evacuation in hospitals is a very demanding task. It will have to be differentiated between a total or a
partial evacuation. Evacuations require serious planning and a good concept.Without adequate
planning they will most likeliho

26
Fire Disaster Management
INTRODUCTION:
Fire is the rapid oxidation of amaterial inthe chemical processof combustion,releasingheat,light,and
variousreaction products.[1]
Sloweroxidativeprocesseslikerustingordigestionare notincludedbythis
definition.

27
Chemistry
Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient
quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen
oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature
above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that
produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without
all of these elements in place and in the right proportions.
Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a
natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the
following:
 turningoff the gas supply,whichremovesthe fuel source;
 coveringthe flame completely,whichsmothersthe flame asthe combustionbothusesthe
available oxidizer(the oxygeninthe air) anddisplacesitfromthe areaaroundthe flame withCO2;
 applicationof water,whichremovesheatfromthe fire fasterthanthe fire can produce it
(similarly,blowinghardona flame will displace the heatof the currentlyburninggasfromitsfuel
source,to the same end),or
 applicationof aretardant chemical suchas Halon to the flame,whichretardsthe chemical
reactionitself until the rate of combustionistooslow tomaintainthe chainreaction.
In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this
include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and
oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is
better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant medium in which the fuel
and oxidizer can more readily react.
Heat
Fires give off heat, or the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal
contact.
Typical temperaturesof fires and flames
 Ox hydrogen flame:2000 °C or above (3600 °F)[7]

28
 Bunsenburnerflame:1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F)[8]
 Blowtorch flame:1,300 °C (2,400 °F)[9]
 Candle flame:1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
 Smolderingcigarette:
o Temperature withoutdrawing:side of the litportion;400 °C (750 °F);middle of the litportion:
585 °C (1,100 °F)
o Temperature duringdrawing:middle of the litportion:700 °C (1,300 °F)
o Alwayshotterinthe middle.
Temperatures of flames by appearance
The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:
 Red
o Justvisible:525 °C (980 °F)
o Dull:700 °C (1,300 °F)
o Cherry,dull:800 °C (1,500 °F)
o Cherry,full:900 °C (1,700 °F)
o Cherry,clear:1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
 Orange
o Deep:1,100 °C (2,000 °F)
o Clear:1,200 °C (2,200 °F)
 White
o Whitish:1,300 °C (2,400 °F)
o Bright:1,400 °C (2,600 °F)
o Dazzling:1,500 °C (2,700 °F)
Protection and prevention
Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use
and prescribed or controlled burns.Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is
monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under
less dangerous weather conditions.[25]
Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled
fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire
hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.
Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to
teach people how to avoid causing fires.Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often
conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely
starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.
Controlledburn
Controlled or prescribed burning, also known as hazard reduction burning or Swailing is a
technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas
abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a
tool for foresters. Hazard reduction or controlled burning is conducted during the cooler months to
reduce fuel buildup and decrease the likelihood of serious hotter fires.[1] Controlled burning

29
stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. Some cones,
such as sequoia and serotinous require heat from fire to open cones to disperse seeds.
In industrialized countries, controlled burning is usually overseen by fire control authorities for
regulations and permits. The party responsible must delineate the intended time and place.
Obtaining a permit may not limit liability if the fire burns out of control.
Restoration
Different restoration methods and measures are used depending on the type of fire damage that
occurred. Fire damage can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance
personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional fire
damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore fire damaged property
due to their training and extensive experience. Most are usually listed under "Fire and Water
Restoration" and they can help speed repairs, whether for individual homeowners or for the largest
of institutions.
Fire and Water Restoration companies are regulated by the appropriate state's Department of
Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water
Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.
Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water
and fire damage restoration." Hence, the Contractor's State License Board requires both an asbestos
certification (ASB) as well as a demolition classification (C-21) in order to perform Fire and Water
Restoration work
Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize
damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To
maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most
developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery,
carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.
Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage, fire insurance can
mitigate the financial impact.

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