This is a complete review of Forensic Science and its various branches and the various methodology and techniques used for forensic analysis of various evidences and examination of crime scene.
2. Crime
1.) It is an act or commission of act that is
not allowed or the omission of
responsibility that is ordered by a public
law that makes the offender accountable
to punishment by law.
2.) Crime can be defined to be any felony
or offensive act committed by an
individual or a group of people which is
harmful to an individual, community or
property against which there are a certain
set of punishments by state or any other
governing body.
3.) As per sociological perspective it is a
3. Factors
There are numerous reasons why a
person goes off the line to commit a
crime despite of being aware of the
outcomes.
Not going into the details the three
basic reasons why a person commits
crime is as following.
1.) Lure for money.
2.) Lust
3.) Overpowering of an emotion
(Anger, Jealousy, Love etc.).
4. Factors can also be classified in
following way.
Crime
Sociological
Psychological
PoliticalReligious
Economical
5.
6. Types of Crimes
There are multiple ways to classify
crime here we have discussed two
major classifications
• On the basis of purpose, aim or
objective.
• On the basis of against what or whom
the crime has been committed.
7. Monetary crimes
Theft, decoity, fraud,
forgery, contraband currency, etc.
Sexual Crimes
Political crimes
Espionage (international), treachery, treason
etc.
Miscellaneous crimes
Crimes other than the above three types e.g. quarrels,
fights, kidnapping or addiction to narcotics etc.
Crime
8. Crime against
individual
Crimes against
Public Health
Crimes against
public peace
and order
Crimes against
moral values
Crimes against
moveable or
immoveable
possessions
Crimes
regarding
Natural
Resources
Crimes
regarding
Natural
Resources
9. Criminal
Justice
System
The criminal justice
system is the set of
agencies and
processes established
by governments to
control crime and
impose penalties on
those who violate
laws.
CJS
Law
Enforcement
Judiciary
Correctional
Systems
Forensic
Labs
Laws and
Rules
Defence
Lawyers
Prosecution
Dept.
14. Crime Scene
It is the place where crime has
occurred or where signs of
crimes may be established or
the place from where maximum
number of physical evidences
can be retrieved. It may also be
called as the meeting point of
Suspect and Victim.
It is of following types
17. Witness
Witness In law a witness is
someone who, either voluntarily
or under compulsion, provides
testimonial evidence, either oral
or written, of what he or she
knows or claims to know.
It is of following types.
18. Witness
Eye Witness
is one with knowledge
obtained through his or
her
own senses (e.g., visual
perception, hearing,
smell, touch). That
perception might be
either with the unaided
human sense or with the
aid of an instrument,
such as microscope or
stethoscope.
Hearsay
A hearsay witness is
one who testifies
about what
someone else said
or wrote.
Expert
An expert witness is one
who allegedly has
specialized knowledge
relevant to the matter of
interest, which
knowledge purportedly
helps to either make
sense of other evidence,
including other
testimony, documentary
evidence or physical
evidence (e.g., a
fingerprint).
19. Evidence
Evidence The available body of facts or information
indicating whether a belief of proposal is true/valid or not.
It can be of following types.
Analogical
Anecdotal
Character
Circumstantial
Demonstrative
Digital
Direct
Documentary
Exculpatory
Forensic
Hearsay
20. Crime Scene
Investigation
It involves a sequence of identifying,
protection, collection and analysis of
evidences and then link them to build
an image of what must have
occurred at the crime scene.
Beyond the above mentioned
classification of Crime Scene. Crime
Scene can also be classified as
Primary and Secondary.
21. Primary Crime Scene is the first hand
place where an offence took place while
Secondary Crime Scene is the location
which some way or the other linked to the
original crime and its primary location.
Example- In case of a murder if a person
was killed in his home and his body was
dumped into a lake nearby, his house will
be Primary and Lake will be Secondary
Crime Scene.
By having knowledge of Crime, Crime
Scene and Nature of Evidences we can
frame out a methodology to proceed our
investigation.
22.
23. Before proceeding two another
important terms which we need
to know about are Modus
Operandi and Corpus Delicity.
Modus Operandi is the mode of
operation or the specific pattern
in which an offender commits a
crime.
Corpus Delicity is the initial
sign or indications that show that
a crime has occurred at a place.
25. Investigating Team
As per the requirement of the case a team is
appointed for investigation. Any typical
investigating team may comprise of the
following members.
• First Police Officer.
• Investigating Officer.
• Medics.
• Medical Examiner.
• Photographer.
• Technician.
• Forensic Expert.
• Any other expert or skilled person as per
the requirement of case.
26. Stages of crime scene
investigation.
• Securing crime scene
• Scanning crime scene
• Sketching crime scene
• Searching evidence
• Documentation of scene
• Securing, collecting and packaging
• Maintaining chain of custody
• Reconstruction
27. Scanning
An initial walk through is make entire
crime scene to frame the
methodology and requirements of
investigation and following details
are noted.
• Possible location of evidences.
• Environmental condition
• Possible entry and exit.
• Initial questions- who, what, when,
how?
• Requirements of apparatus and
resources requires for the
investigation to proceed.
28. Sketching
An initial diagrammatical
representation of the entire crime
scene is showing special and
dimensional relationships of the all
element of crime scene with each
other and with the crime scene with
the whole. It serves as an important
reference for recalling details in
advanced stage of investigation. The
sketches can also be used in court
room trail not as an evidence
themselves but to increase the
credibility of other evidences and
finding.
32. Searching for
Evidence
Before searching it is essential to
know what could be potential
source of evidence. Primary
sources are.
• Body of victim
• Primary crime scene
• Secondary crime scene
• Transport
• suspect
33. Types Of Search Methods-
depending upon crime scene.
Method Crime Scene
Grid Quadrilateral Area With
Physical Boundaries
Line Outdoor Settings
Quadrant Indoors Like A House Or
Any Building
Wheel Small Circular Area
Spiral Outdoor With No
Physical Boundaries
34.
35. Documentation
It is important to know that a crime
scene continues changes due to
various factors and as the time
proceeds the evidences available at
the moment may become obsolete.
Thus it is important to document
and record the entire crime scene in
a way that the documentation not
only act as a permanent record but
also provide reference in latest
stages of investigation.
38. Forensic
science
It is an applied science
that uses the knowledge
of various branches of
science to help law
enforcement agencies and
criminal justice system to
solve any crime.
39. Need of an hour
In earlier days law enforcement agencies used to
be feared by the common people so much that
whom so ever the officials put their hands onto
confessed crime even if the person did not
committed one.
There was a trend of third degree torture to
make culprit confess by force.
As the time change there has been a drastic
change in the society and also the awareness of
people towards human rights have led to decline
of third degree torture and use of brute force by
the law enforcement agencies.
We have evolved from a small ruler populations
to large over populated metropolitan cities.
40. With advancements in various
technologies and life styles the pattern
of crime has also changed.
In today’s time with efficient transport
means large cities and high tech.
communication means it has become
very easy for a criminal to evade law.
Considering the above mentioned facts
it became an absolute necessity for
governments to adapt, improvise and
take over to more systematic and
scientific methods to curve the ever
increasing crime rate.
41. Introduction
Forensic science is group of scientific
discipline which is concern with the
application of their particular scientific area
of expertise to law enforcements, criminal,
civil, legal and judicial. Forensic scientist
examine objects, substances left at the crime
scene, thus we can say it is a
multidisciplinary subject.
The word forensic comes from the Latin term
“Forensis” which means “of or before the
forum”. However the term is now closely
associated with the scientific field such that
many dictionaries include the meaning that
equates the word forensics with forensic
Science.
42. The first written account of using medicine
and entomology (study of insects) to solve
criminal cases is attributed to the book of
“XI YUN LU” means “ washing away of
wrongs” written by “SONG CI” in 1248, who
was director of justices, jail and supervision
during the song dynasty.
In the late 18th century French Physician
Francois Immanuel Fodere wrote a journal
named treatise on forensic medicine and
public health.
A notable case recorded as one of the first
case of forensic ballistic occurred in 1784 in
Lancaster in which Jon Tomes was tried and
convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw
with a pistol by analysing and match a pistol
wad found recovered from the dead body.
Song Ci
44. History
The modern foundations of forensic
science was ultimately laid by Dr.
Edmond Locard (1876-1966) who
was French criminologist who was
popularly known as Sherlock homes
of France, who gave the first law of
forensic science “ LOCARD
PRINCIPLE OF EXCHAGE” which is
the founding stone of entire modern
forensic science.
Locard also succeeded in persuading
the police department of Lyon to
establish what come to be as the
first forensic science laboratory.
Dr Edmond Locard
45. Basically Forensic
Science work on 7
Laws.
• Law of exchange
• Law of progressive change
• Law of probability
• Law of individuality
• Law of comparison
• Law of circumstantial fact
• Law of analysis
48. Law of
Probability
It is a mathematical concept. It
determines the chances of
occurrence of a particular event
in a particular number of
different way in which the event
can take place or fail to take
place with equal facility.
53. Branches
As mentioned above forensic science is
multi-disciplinary subject i.e. it involves
application of various fields. Some of the
Major branches of forensic science are as
following: -
• Forensic Biology
• Forensic Serology
• Forensic Toxicology
• Forensic Ballistics
• Forensic Chemistry
• Forensic Document
• Cyber Forensics
55. Forensic Biology
It is the application of
the knowledge of biology
to solve a crime. Since
biology in itself is a vast
field comprising of
various sub fields so is
forensic biology.
Following are the sub
streams of the forensic
biology.
57. History
• Leone lattes (1887-1984) father of blood stain
identification he developed a procedure for
determining the blood group of a dried blood
stain.
• Karl Landsteiner devised the ABO system of blood
grouping in the year 1900.
• Alec Jeffery also called father of DNA
Fingerprinting gave the most efficient system of
identification and individualisation of any person
from his/her DNA samples.
• Alphonse Bertillon devised the famous Bertillon
system of individualization of any person by their
body measurements. His system laid founding
stone of many further discoveries and inventions
regarding the subject.
59. Major Evidences that come for Analysis
DIVISION EVIDENCES COLLECTION PACKAGING &
PRESERVATION
Biology & serology Hair
Seminal stain
Saliva
Blood
Vaginal stain
Tweezers, vacuum,
tape lifting
Swab , article bearing
the stain is collected as
a whole
Clean white gauze
Swab , scraping, article
bearing collected as
whole, pipette
Similar to seminal stain
Plastic bag or
paper envelope
Paper bag or
paper envelope
Plastic container
Plastic/ glass
container. if
liquid then it will
preserve in EDTA
Paper bag or
paper envelope
60. Forensic Toxicology
Forensic toxicology is the use of
toxicology and disciplines such as
analytical chemistry,
pharmacology and clinical
chemistry to aid medical or legal
investigation of death, poisoning,
and drug use.
M. Orifella father of Toxicology.
He wrote about the detection of
poisons and their effect on
animals.
M. Orifella
61. Poison
It is a substance (solid, liquid,
gas) which if introduce in the
living body or brought into
contact with any part thereof
will produce ill health or dead
by its constitutional or local
effects or both.
Thus almost anything is
poison, it depends upon dose.
66. Antidotes
Antidotes are substances that
act specifically to prevent,
inhibit, inactivate,
counteract, reverse or relieve
the action or poisonous
effects of a toxic agent, i.e.
they are remedies used to
counteract the action of
poisons.
69. Sample Preservation
Sample Quantity Preservative
Whole blood 10ml EDTA tube,
fluoride/oxalate, if
alcohol is suspected
Urine 20-50ml No preservative, sodium
fluoride if alcohol is
suspected
Gastric contents 25-50ml No preservative
Scalp hair About 200 No preservative
Exhaled hair As required No preservative
Scene residues As appropriate No preservative
70. Forensic Chemistry
Forensic chemistry is the application
of chemistry in a legal setting.
James Marsh in 1836 who was a
British chemist first uses the forensic
chemistry. He introduce the Marsh
Test for Arsenic detection.
James Marsh
71. Forensic Ballistics
It is the science that deals in investigation of
firearm, ammunition and the problem caused by it.
Forensic
Ballistics
Internal
External
Wound
Terminal
72. Firearm
A firearm is a gun (a barrelled ranged
weapon) designed to be readily
carried and used by a single
individual. It inflicts damage on
targets by launching one or more
projectiles driven by rapidly
expanding high-pressure gas produced
by exothermic combustion
(deflagration) of chemical propellant.
74. Ammunition
According to section 2-1 (b) of Indian Act of 1959,
Ammunition means any artillery that can be
used in combat or warfare. It includes
(i) Rockets, bombs, grenades, and other live missiles
(ii) Articles designed for torpedo service and submarine
mining
(iii) Other articles containing or designed or adopted to
contain explosive, fulminating or
fissionable material or noxious liquid, gas, etc.
(iv) Charges of fire arms and accessories for such charges
(v) Fuses and friction tubes
(vi) Parts of and machinery for manufacturing ammunition
75. Two major types of Ammunition
Shotgun Cartridge Rifled Weapon Cartridge
76. Rifling
In firearms, rifling refers to the
helical groovings that are machined
into the internal (bore) surface of a
gun's barrel, for the purpose of
exerting torque and thus imparting a
spin to a projectile around its
longitudinal axis during shooting.
This spin serves to gyroscopically
stabilize the projectile by
conservation of angular momentum,
improving its aerodynamic stability
and accuracy over smoothbore
designs.
79. Gunshot Residue
Gun Shot Residue (GSR) also known as CDR
(cartridge discharge residue) and FDR (firearm
discharge residue) comprises gases, non-
volatile, visible and invisible particles which
may be unburnt or partially burnt coming from
Barrel, Primer, Propellant, Cartridge, Bullet and
Firearm.
There detection location analysis plays an
important role in investigative procedures
involving usage of any type of firearm.
80. Digital Forensic
Digital forensics (sometimes known
as digital forensic science) is a branch
of forensic science encompassing the
recovery and investigation of material
found in digital devices, often in
relation to computer crime.
The first computer crimes were
recognized in the 1978 Florida
Computer Crimes Act, which included
legislation against the unauthorized
modification or deletion of data on a
computer system.
81. Cyber Crime
Cyber-crime denotes to any misconduct that includes a
computer and a network. The computer might have
been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be
the target. Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of
the Internet. Dr. Debarati Halder and Dr.K. Jaishankar
(2011) defines Cyber-crimes as: "Crimes that are done
against persons or groups of persons with a criminal
intention to deliberately harm the status of the victim or
cause physical or psychological destruction to the
victim directly or indirectly, using modern
telecommunication networks such as Internet
82. Classification of Cyber Crime
Cyber
crime
Against
individual
Against
property
Against
society
Against
organization
83. Hacking
Hacking generally refers to unauthorized
intrusion into a computer or a network. The
person engaged in hacking activities is
known as a hacker. This hacker may alter
system or security features to accomplish a
goal that differs from the original purpose of
the system.
85. Forensic Physics
Forensic Physics is one of the hardest
fields of forensic science. It deals with a
combination of ballistics, bombs, blood
splatters, the measurement of density (soil
and glass examination), index of refraction,
and birefringence (fibre analysis, glass
examination).
86. Physical EvidencesDIVISION EVIDENCES COLLECTION PACKAGING &
PRESERVATION
Physics
Fibre
Soil
Tools
Tool marks
Metal wire
Tyre marks/shoe marks/
foot marks
Glass
Paint
Cloths
Plastic tweezers, tape lifting
Manual lifting & vacuum
Manual lifting
POP casting
Plastic tweezers, manual lifting
POP casting
Tweezers
Vacuum, tweezers, tape
lifting
Manual lifting
Plastic bag
Plastic container
Plastic bags and protects
its working end
Plastic container with
proper packaging of
thermocol
Plastic bag
Plastic container with
proper packaging of thick
cotton pads
Rigid plastics container
with protection of cotton
padding
Plastic bag/ container
Plastic bags
87. Physical Evidence: Soil
It is the uppermost
layer of the earth
and considered to
be a corroboratory
evidence. It is
formed by
dynamic
geomorphic cycle.
Types of soils found in India
91. Examination: Microscopic
• Burning test – if the colour or shape are same
then we treat sample at 500-550 degrees or 850
degrees after this the brunt residue is compared.
• pH gradient of soil.
Examination: Chemical
Following characteristics are absorbed under
microscope.
• Colour
• Geometric shapes
• Man made debris
• Particles of mineral
93. Physical Evidence: Glass
• Glass is super cooled liquid
with extremely high viscosity
.
• It is an amorphous hard and
brittle substance formed by
oxides of one or more
substances like Phosphorus,
Silicon , Boron and few other
substances fused together in
a molten state and then
cooled quickly to avoid
crystallisation.
96. Examination
Following characteristics are
compared and analysed for glass.
• Density- Is measured by floatation
and density gradient method.
• Refractive index- 1.Glass refracting
machine by Foster and Freeman .
2. Abbe’s Refractometer- Uses Snell’s
law.
3. Hot stage microscope.
4. Phase contrast microscope
5. Polarized light microscope
• Fluorescence- most of the glasses
don’t fluorescence in UV.
• Fractures
Hot-stage Microscope
98. Fibre
A fibre is a thin thread of a natural or artificial
substance, especially one that is used to
make cloth or rope. If you look at the paper
under a microscope you will see the fibres.
Fibre consists of the parts of plants or seeds
that your body cannot digest.
102. Tool marks and other impressions
Depending on the force with
which a tool comes in contact
with a softer surface,
Tool marks are divided into
two different categories:-
1.Impressed tool marks
2.Striated tool marks
103. Impressed Tool Marks
These marks occur when the surface onto which the tool comes
in contact with, is softer in comparison. When the tool comes in
contact with the object (softer than the tool) with a huge force
in a motion perpendicular to the plane of the surface leaving an
impression on the surface.
Such tool marks are called impressed tool marks. There is no
lateral motion. At the crime scene, the unique imperfections of
the tools are transferred to the surface that make possible a
positive identification of the tool involved in the crime.
As an example, when a tool like a screw driver is used by the
criminal to forcefully intend a metal surface without
penetrating, then the impressions it leave will be helpful in
identifying the tool.
104. Striation tool Marks
These marks are produced when
the tool contacts an object with
lateral or sideways force.
In such a case, the tool is placed
against an object and is moved
parallel to the object or
across the object Striation marks
106. Examination
Tool marks can be
examined by the
follows:-
1.Casting method –
Generally Plaster
of Paris is used.
2.Photography:- over
head photography
along with
measuring scale.
107. Forensic Archaeology
Forensic archaeologists employ their
knowledge of proper excavation
techniques to ensure that remains are
recovered in a controlled and
forensically acceptable manner.
When remains are found partially or
completely buried the proper
excavation of the remains will ensure
that any evidence present on the bones
will remain intact.
109. Fingerprint Analysis
Palms and fingers of humans and
few other primates are engraved
with ridges and grooves patterns
formed by epidermal layer of skin.
Each individual has unique patters
which cannot be same even in
identical twins.
110. Herschel is credited with being the first
European to note the value of fingerprints for
identification.
He recognized that fingerprints were unique and
permanent.
Herschel documented his own fingerprints over
his lifetime to prove permanence. He was also
credited with being the first person to use
fingerprints in a practical manner.
As early as the 1850s, working as a British officer
for the Indian Civil Service in the Bengal region
of India, he started putting fingerprints on
contracts.
History
Sir William Herschel
111. Fingerprints can be majorly classified among
following patterns.
• Loop- Radial, Ulnar and Central Pocket.
• Whorl- Plain, Double Loop and Accidental.
• Arch- Plain and Tented.
Fingerprints encountered from a crime scene
can be classified in following categories.
• Latent.
• Visible.
• Plastic.
114. Cheiloscopy
Cheiloscopy is a forensic
investigation technique that
deals with identification of
humans based on lips traces.
The aim of this study is to
establish the uniqueness of lip
prints which aids in personal
identification.
115. Forensic Otology
It is the application of the knowledge of morphology of
human hair in establishing identity of the person for legal
purposes.
External human ear is considered to be a highly variable
structure showing different morphological and individualistic
features in different individuals and population groups. The
uniqueness of the ear may be useful in establishing the
identity of individuals by direct examination, during the
examination of CCTV footage or analysis of the ear prints.
Considering the forensic significance of the human ear and
ear prints encountered at the scene of the crime, the
present study is an attempt to evaluate various
morphological characteristics of the ear in a north Indian
population
118. Injury
An injury or a wound means a
solution or disruption of the
anatomical continuity of any of the
tissues of the body.
Under Sec 44, an injury, is defined
as any harm whatever illegally
caused to any person in body, mind,
reputation, or property.
Injuries caused by the application of
physical violence to the body are
called mechanical injuries.
119. Depending on how they are caused, e.g. by
blunt force, sharp weapon, or a firearm, they
can be classified as following.
• Abrasions- scratches, grazes, imprint or
pressure marks.
• Bruises- contusions.
• Lacerations- splits, tears.
• Fractures.
• Incised wounds- cuts.
• Stab wounds.
• Firearm injuries- gunshot
121. Simple
• It is a type of injury that heals rapidly and doesn’t leaves any
permanent mark or impairment in the body.
• Example- Incision over epidermal layer of skin, first degree
burns, etc.
Grievous
• It is a type of injury that doesn’t heal rapidly is extensive and
leaves a permanent mark or impairment in the body.
• Impairment of any of the senses (sight, hear, taste, smell)
Dangerous
• It is a type of injury which if not treated immediately can be
life threatening.
• Gunshot wound, rupture of vital organs, fracture of skull, etc.
Injuries can also be classified on the basis of there lethality.
122. Autopsy
An autopsy (post-mortem
examination, obduction,
necropsy, or autopsia
cadaverum) is a surgical
procedure that consists of a
thorough examination of a
corpse by dissection to
determine the cause, mode,
and manner of death or to
evaluate any disease or injury
that may be present for
research or educational
purposes.
123. Purposes
Autopsies are performed for either legal or
medical purposes. Autopsies can be performed
when any of the following information is desired:
•Determine if death was natural or unnatural
•Injury source and extent on the corpse
•Manner of death must be determined
•Time since death
•Establish identity of deceased
•Retain relevant organs
•If infant, determine live birth and viability
124. Types
There are four main types of autopsies:
Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's autopsies seek to find the cause
and manner of death and to identify the decedent. They are generally performed, as
prescribed by applicable law, in cases of violent, suspicious or sudden deaths, deaths
without medical assistance or during surgical procedures.
Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to diagnose a particular disease or
for research purposes. They aim to determine, clarify, or confirm medical diagnoses
that remained unknown or unclear prior to the patient's death.
Anatomical or academic autopsies are performed by students of anatomy for study
purpose only.
Virtual or medical imaging autopsies are performed utilizing imaging technology
only, primarily magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).
125. Examination
The examination is carried in two phases- External Examination and Internal
Examination in the same order respectively.
External Examination
• After the body is received, it is first photographed.
• The examiner then notes the kind of clothes and their position on the body
before they are removed.
• Next, any evidence such as residue, flakes of paint or other material is
collected from the external surfaces of the body. Ultraviolet light may also be
used to search body surfaces for any evidence not easily visible to the naked
eye.
• Samples of hair, nails and the like are taken, and the body may also be
radiographically imaged.
• Once the external evidence is collected, the body is removed from the bag,
undressed, and any wounds present are examined.
• The body is then cleaned, weighed, and measured in preparation for the
internal examination.
126. Internal Examination
For the internal examination there are a number of different approaches
available:
• A large and deep Y-shaped incision can be made starting at the top of each
shoulder and running down the front of the chest, meeting at the lower
point of the sternum (breastbone).
• A curved incision made from the tips of each shoulder, in a semi-circular
line across the chest/decolletage, to approximately the level of the
second rib, curving back up to the opposite shoulder.
• A single vertical incision is made from the sternal notch at the base of the
neck.
• A U-shaped incision is made at the tip of both shoulders, down along the
side of the chest to the bottom of the rib cage, following along it. This is
typically used on women and during chest-only autopsies.
128. Dying Declaration
In the law of evidence, a dying
declaration is testimony that would
normally be barred as hearsay but may in
common law nonetheless be admitted as
evidence in criminal law trials because it
constituted the last words of a dying
person. The rationale is that someone
who is dying or believes death to be
imminent would have less incentive to
fabricate testimony, and as such, the
hearsay statement carries with it some
reliability.
129. DYING DEPOSITION
Dying deposition is almost a dying declaration.
The main difference being that it is always
recorded by a magistrate in presence of the
accused or his/her lawyer.
The Magistrate records the evidence after
administering oath in presence of the accused
or his lawyer.
Legally, the dying deposition is more valuable
than dying declaration as the accused has got
the opportunity to challenge and cross-
examine.
130.
131. Thanatology
Thanatology or Death-Lore is the
scientific study of death and the losses
brought about as a result.
It investigates the mechanisms and
forensic aspects of death, such as
bodily changes that accompany death
and the post-mortem period, as well as
wider psychological and social aspects
related to death.
132. Tripod of Life- “Atria Mortis”
Life
Nervous
System
Circulatory
System
Respiratory
System
133. Death
Death is the permanent cessation of all
biological functions that sustain a living
organism. Phenomena which commonly
bring about death include aging,
predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide,
homicide, starvation, dehydration, and
accidents or major trauma resulting in
terminal injury. In most cases, bodies of
living organisms begin to decompose
shortly after death.
134. Time of Death
The accurate determination of time of
death is important due to its role in
explaining possible criminal acts and
determination of appropriate civil
repercussions. The changes that occur
after death that are helpful in estimation
of the approximate time of death can be
classified into.
1.) Immediate Changes.
2.) Early Changes
3.) Late Changes
138. Factors affecting Putrification
• Temperature
• Moisture
• Air
• Clothing
• Manner of Burial
• Age
• Condition of Body
• Cause of Death
• External Injury
139.
140. Asphyxia
It is a condition caused by
interference with the exchange of
oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the
body.
Asphyxia literally means defective
aeration of blood due to any cause
144. Hanging
Hanging is a form of Asphyxia
caused by suspension of the
body by ligature which
encircles the neck, the
constricting force being the
weight of the body.
146. Post mortem and Anti Mortem Hanging
Feature Post Mortem Anti Mortem
147. Drowning
Drowning is the process of experiencing
respiratory impairment from
submersion/immersion in liquid.
It is classified as following:-
(I)Typical Drowning/Wet Drowning
1.) Fresh water Drowning.
2.) Salt water Drowning.
(II)Atypical Drowning
1.) Dry drowning.
2.) Immersion syndrome.
149. Fire is a chemical reaction that takes place when
fuel, heat, and oxygen combine in an uninhabited
chain reaction. To stop burning of fire, out of the
three elements present in fire triangle should be
removed. Remove any one of the elements and the
fire goes out because you have stopped the
continuing chemical reaction. Because only gases
burn, solid and liquid fuels must be heated until
they become vapour before they can burn. Heat
chemically decomposes a fuel into its gaseous
elements. This decomposition is known as
pyrolysis.
Fire/Arson
150. Types of Fire
Class/Classification of fires Example
Class "A” Solid materials: paper, wood, lumber, cloth
Class "B" Flammable liquids: oils, paints, grease, gases
Class "C" Electric: faulty fuse boxes, frayed wires, over-
loaded electrical outlets
Class “D". combustible metals
152. Arson
Arson is the crime of will fully and maliciously
setting fire to or charring property. Though the
act typically involves buildings, the term arson
can also refer to the intentional burning of
other things, such as motor vehicles,
watercraft, or forests. The crime is typically
classified as a felony, with instances involving a
greater degree of risk to human life or property
carrying a stricter penalty. A common motive for
arson is to commit insurance fraud. In such
cases, a person destroys their own property by
burning it and then lies about the cause in order
to collect against their insurance policy.
153. Few of the reasons for arson are given below:
Financial gain (Insurance Claim)
Vanity
Revenge
Civil Disorder
Crime Concealment
Delinquent Behaviour
Excitement
Pyromania
Dowry Death
Communal Purposes
Motives of Arson
155. Management of Arson Cases
Following methodology is followed while
investigating cases of arson and in the
following order.
• Synopsis of Fire Behaviour
• Investigation Management
• Fire Scene Diagramming
• Case Management
• Pyromaniacs, Arsonists
• Coordination with Insurance
Companies
• Report Writing/Case Management
• Research and Development (R&D)
156. Following tools are required to collect
the Arson debris.
• Latex Gloves
• Tweezers
• Cardboard Boxes
• Forceps
• Plastic Bags
• Swabs
• Thermometers
• Wrapping paper
• Scalpel
• Hand tools
157. Analysis of Arson Debris
Extraction/Distillation of exhibits/sample is done by diethyl ether (2-3 times).
Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate complex mixtures (in all
forms i.e. Solid, Liquid, Gas).
Column is of two designs: Packed or Capillary.
Separation is recorded in form of chromatogram.
The essential component of Gas Chromatography and Capillary Gas Chromatography
are:
Injection Valve
Mobile Phase (Gas)
Stationary Phase (Column)
Oven
Detector
GC and Capillary Gas Chromatography is one of most ideal tool for petroleum
product analysis.
160. Biometrics
Biometrics is the term
derived from Greek word,
“Biometron”. “Bio” means
life and “metron” means to
measure.
It is defined as a tool for
identification and
verification of the person on
the basis of physiological
and behavioural
characteristics of the
person.
164. Modes of Biometric System
Identification.
• One to many comparison
• It searches for a sample
against a database of
templates.
• It identifies an unknown
individual.
Verification.
• One to many
comparison
• It compares a sample
against a single stored
data
• It verifies that the
individual is who he
claims to be.
166. Biometric device consists of.
• Scanning device.
• Software which converts
scanned information into
digital form and compares on
same matching points.
• Database that stores
biometric features for
further comparison
167. Performance Matrix
• FAR (False Acceptance Rate)- It is a measure
of the presence of invalid inputs that are
incorrectly accepted.
• FRR (False Rejection Rate)- It is measure of
the presence of valid inputs that are
incorrectly rejected.
• CER (Cross-over Error Rate)- It is a rate at
which both FRR and FAR occur, lower the
value of CER more accurate is the system
168. Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology is the application of
psychological knowledge and methods to
legal questions.
Some of the professional literature refers
to forensic psychology broadly as the
research and application of psychological
knowledge to the legal system, whereas
some of it prefers a more narrow
approach, limiting forensic psychology to
the application and practice of psychology
as it pertains to the legal system.
169. Along with Psychology
another term is often
mentioned and
confused with called
Psychiatry however
there is a much
marginalized
difference between
the two.
170. Psychology vs Psychiatry
Psychologists and psychiatrists often work together for the well-
being of the client, their job descriptions overlap.
However, there are several crucial differences between a
psychologist and psychiatrist, the most critical being the nature of
treatment within the two professions.
Because psychiatrists are trained medical doctors, they can
prescribe medications, and they spend much of their time with
patients on medication management as a course of treatment.
Psychologists focus extensively on psychotherapy and treating
emotional and mental suffering in patients with behavioural
intervention. Psychologists are also qualified to conduct
psychological testing, which is critical in assessing a person’s
mental state and determining the most effective course of
treatment.
172. Police and
Investigation
Police and public safety psychology
(PPSP) is the research and application
of psychological knowledge and
clinical skills to law enforcement and
public safety.
173. Legal Psychology
Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological
research of the law, legal institutions, and people
who come into contact with the law. Legal
psychologists typically take basic social and
cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the
legal system such as eyewitness memory, jury
decision-making, investigations, and interviewing.
The term "legal psychology" has only recently
come into usage, primarily as a way to
differentiate the experimental focus of legal
psychology from the clinically-oriented forensic
psychology.
174. Criminal
Psychology
Criminal psychology, also
referred to as criminological
psychology, is the study of the
views, thoughts, intentions,
actions and reactions of
criminals and all that partakes
in the criminal behaviour.
175. Victim Psychology
Victim psychology, also
referred to as victimology, is
the study of the views,
thoughts, intentions, actions
and reactions of victim and all
that partakes in the legal
process.
176. Correctional Psychology
Correctional psychology is the application of
basic and applied psychological science or
scientifically-oriented professional practice to
the justice system to enable the proper
classification, treatment, and management of
offenders.
Its goal is to reduce the risk of offender
misconduct and thus to improve public safety.
The two very important terms that coin along
with Forensic Psychology are Criminal Profiling
and Modus Operandi both of them are
interlinked with each other.
177. Modus Operandi
Translates to Mode of Operation.
It can be defined as methodology and
techniques employed by a criminal to
commit a crime.
It is a principle of Crime Scene
Investigation based upon the fact that
criminal is probably going to use
constant technique repeatedly and any
analysis or record of the technique can
be utilized to give an identification of
the culprit.
178. Following signs can be noted for to generate criminal’s
profile based upon his Modus Operandi.
1) Type of property attacked.
2) Entry.
3) Means (the probable tool or weapon used)
4) Object (kinds of objects taken)
5) Style (can be a unique attire or disguise taken up by
criminal to gain entry)
6) Tale (disclosure about the criminal from himself)
7) Pals (any possible associates of the criminal)
8) Transport
9) Trademark (any unusual behaviour in connection with the
crime.
179. Criminal Profiling
According to FBI, profiling is defined as a technique which serves to
identify the major personality and behavioural characteristics of an
offender based on the analysis of the crime the offender committed.
Lombroso an Italian scientist is considered to be the father of Criminal
Profiling. He was the first to classify criminals into three categories.
• Born Criminals.
• Insane Criminals.
• Criminaloids.
He claimed that origin and motivation of crime can be evaluated by
and understood by learning about the traits of the offenders.
180. It involves following steps.
• Evaluation of the crime itself.
• Comprehensive analysis of the specifics of
the crime scene (Modus Operandi).
• Comprehensive analysis of the victim.
• Evaluation of preliminary reports.
• Evaluation of Medical Examiner’s Autopsy
Report Protocol.
• Development of profile with critical
offender characteristics.
• Investigative suggestion predicted upon
constructed profile.
181. Notable Cases pertinent to
Forensic Psychology and Criminal
Profiling
Mad Bomber Case (1940’s and 1950’s),
New York.
During 40s and 50s a mad bomber
terrorised the city of New York setting 37
bombs in train stations and theatres.
Dr. Brussels a well-known criminal
psychologist of his time made analysis in
this case.
182. On the basis of his analysis he generated following profile
of the suspect.
• Suspect was paranoid.
• Hated his father.
• Loved his mother.
• Lived in the state of Connecticut.
• Was of average built.
• Middle Aged.
• Foreign Born.
• Roman Catholic.
• Single.
• Lived with his mother or sister.
• Wore a double buttoned and double breasted suit.
In 1957 when the George Metesky, the man behind those
bomb blasts, Brussel’s profile proved to be quite accurate.
183. Boston Strangulation
Case (June 1962-June
1964)
In this case, 13 sexual strangulations and
homicides were committed in the city of Boston.
A Psychological Profiling Committee was
established consisting Gynaecologist,
Psychiatrist, Anthropologist and other
professionals to assist in solving the case with
the help of criminal profiling.
184. This committee came up to following
conclusions.
• The homicides were committed by 2 separate
offenders.
• They came up to this conclusion as one group
of victim was of older age and the other was
younger.
• They felt that the older ones were killed by a
man who was raised by a dominating and
seductive mother and he was unable to
express his hatred towards his mother and he
lived alone.
• They further opined that younger victims
were probably killed by a homosexual male.
185. However in 1964 Brussels was
introduced to this case as well
and he generated a different
profile and stated that the
murders were committed by a
single person and in November
1964 when Albert De Salvo was
arrested for the killings, he
perfectly matched Brussel’s
profile.
186. Forensic Psychiatry
Psychiatry is a branch of medical
science which deals with the study,
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of
mental illness and behavioural
disorders.
Forensic Psychiatry deals with the
application of the knowledge of
psychiatry in the administration of
justice.
187. Role of a Forensic
Psychiatrist.
• When an accused on the ground of mental
illness, expresses his inability to stand trial and
plead his defense.
• When a defense is attempted on the ground that
an act has been committed by a mentally ill
person.
• When it is claimed that a person has committed
suicide due to mental illness.
• Validity of consent given by a mentally ill person.
• Competency as a witness.
• Nullity of a marriage or divorce.
• Custody of a child.
• Capacity to make a will.
188. Recent Advancements in
the field of Forensic
Psychology and Psychiatry.
In recent years Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry
have become a prominent and accurate means of
investigation. Several newer techniques have
evolved in the course of time. The most prominent
of them being Polygraph, Brain-Mapping and
Narco Analysis.
189. Polygraph (lie-detector)
A polygraph is a device which makes a
continuous record of various
psychological variables such as blood
pressure, heart rate, respiration and
electro-dermal reactions, while a
series of questions being asked, in an
attempt to detect lies.
The above measurements are believed
to be indicators of anxiety due to
sympathetic stimulation that
accompanies the telling of lies.
190. Brain-mapping
Brain-mapping techniques
majorly involves tracing down
electrical activity of brain (P-
300) response when a person
is stimulated with a series of
phrases, sounds and videos
related to crime he
committed.
P-300 Brain Response is
emitted approximately 300
milliseconds after it is
confronted with a stimulus of
special significance.
191. Narco Analysis
A person lies using his
imagination. Narco Analysis uses
drugs like Sodium Amytal which
put a person in a trance state
where his imagination power is
seized and it becomes difficult
for a person to lie.
