Juvenile Justice in Different Countries Age of Criminal responsibility and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders

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Juvenile Justice in Different Countries
Age of Criminal responsibility and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders
A Compilation by HAQ: Centre for Child Rights
In the world, there are three models that inspire administration of juvenile justice
The Welfare Model
The Justice Model or Control model - Retributive
The Restorative Model
The age of criminal responsibility and treatment of juveniles thus varies under the different
models adopted by various countries. The table below presents some insights from 32
countries.
S. NO. COUNTRY NAME OF ACT AGE OF
CRIMINAL
RESPONSIBILIT
Y
PUNISHMENT/INCAR
CERATION
1. CANADA Youth Criminal
Justice Act-
2003
( Most recent
amendment)
12 years
The Criminal
Code of
Canada, section
13, states "No
person shall be
convicted of an
offence in
respect of an
act or omission
on his or her
part while that
person was
under the age
of twelve
years."
The YCJA (Youth
Criminal Justice Act)
governs the
application of criminal
and correctional law
to those 12 years old
or older, but younger
than 18 at the time of
committing the
offence.
Youth aged 14 to 17
may be tried and/or
sentenced as adults
under certain
conditions, as
described later on in
the act. (Sec 61)
Though all trials will
take place in a youth
court under the Youth
Criminal Justice Act,
for certain offences
and in certain
circumstances a youth
may receive an adult
sentence.

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2. U.S.A Juvenile Justice
and
Delinquency
Prevention Act
( JJDPA-1974)
In 2002, the Act
was
reauthorized
The lowest age
is six, in North
Carolina.
Several states
have no set
standard, and
thus rely on the
common law
age of seven
On June 25, 2012, the
US Supreme Court
ruled unconstitutional
the mandatory
sentence of life
without the
possibility of parole
(LWOP) for crimes
committed by
juveniles. The ruling
did not specify
whether it applied
retroactively to those
in prisons or to future
juvenile felons.
The court banned only
mandatory life
sentences without
parole for those under
age 18 convicted of
murder; it did not
completely banish life
(with parole)
sentences for such
convicts.
In most States, cases
referred to juvenile
court that meet
certain criteria may be
transferred to criminal
court upon the
authorization of the
juvenile court judge.
This mechanism is
known as "judicial
waiver," since the
judge is "waiving" the
juvenile court's
jurisdiction and giving
the case over to the
criminal system.
Judicial Waiver
Under judicial waiver
laws, the case

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originates in juvenile
court. Under certain
circumstances, the
juvenile court judge
has the authority to
waive juvenile court
jurisdiction and
transfer the case to
criminal court. State
statutes vary in how
much guidance they
provide judges on the
criteria used in
determining if a
youth’s case should be
transferred. Some
states call the process
“certification,”
“remand,” or “bind
over for criminal
prosecution.” Others
“transfer” or “decline
jurisdiction.”
Almost all states have
judicial waiver
provisions which is the
most traditional and
common transfer and
waiver provision.
Age of Juvenile Court
Jurisdiction
These laws determine
the age of adulthood
for criminal justice
purposes. They
effectively remove
certain age groups
from the juvenile
court control for all
infractions, whether
violent or nonviolent,
and place them within
the adult court
jurisdiction.
Thirteen states have
defined the age of

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juvenile court
jurisdiction as below
the generally accepted
age of 18 years old.
Transfer and Waiver
Provisions
These laws allow
young people to be
prosecuted in adult
courts if they are
accused of committing
certain crimes.
A variety of
mechanisms exist by
which a youth can be
transferred to adult
court.
Most states have
transfer provisions,
but they vary in how
much authority they
allow judges and
prosecutors to
exercise.
Prosecutorial Waiver
These laws grant
prosecutors discretion
to file cases against
young people in either
juvenile or adult court.
Such provisions are
also known as “concur
rent jurisdiction,”
“prosecutorial
discretion,” or “direct
file.”
Fifteen states have
concurrent jurisdiction
provisions.
Reverse Waiver
This is a mechanism to
allow youth whose
cases are being

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prosecuted in adult
court to be
transferred back down
to the juvenile court
system under certain
circumstances.
Half of the states have
reverse waiver
provisions.
Statutory or
Legislative Exclusion
These laws exclude
certain youth from
juvenile court
jurisdiction entirely by
requiring particular
types of cases to
originate in criminal
rather than juvenile
court.
More than half of the
states have statutory
exclusion laws on the
books.
Blended Sentencing
These laws allow
juvenile or adult
courts to choose
between juvenile and
adult correctional
sanctions in
sentencing certain
youth. Courts often
will combine a
juvenile sentence with
a suspended adult
sentence, which
allows the youth to
remain in the juvenile
justice system as long
as he or she is well-
behaved. Half of the
states have laws
allowing blended

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sentencing in some
cases
Certain states have
recently changed
their state laws and
are aiming towards
removing juveniles
from the criminal
justice system. ( As of
2011)
Four states (Colorado,
Maine, Virginia and
Pennsylvania) have
passed laws limiting
the ability to house
youth in adult jails and
prisons
Three states
(Connecticut, Illinois,
and Mississippi) have
expanded their
juvenile court
jurisdiction so that
older youth who
previously would be
automatically tried as
adults are not
prosecuted in adult
criminal court
Ten states (Arizona,
Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Illinois,
Indiana, Nevada,
Utah, Virginia and
Washington) have
changed their transfer
laws making it more
likely that youth will
stay in the juvenile
justice system.
Four states (Colorado,
Georgia, Texas, and

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Washington) have all
changed their
mandatory minimum
sentencing laws to
take into account the
developmental
differences between
youth and adults
3. ENGLAND & WALES A number of
Acts, dating
back to 1933,
provide for the
system of
juvenile justice
in England and
Wales and
attempt to
ensure that a
fair trial and
fair treatment
is given to
children
accused of
crimes.
(Children and
Young Persons
Act 1933 (as
amended by s
16(1) Children
and Young
Persons Act
1963)
The minimum
age of criminal
responsibility
in England and
Wales is
currently ten
years old.
Those below
this age are
considered doli
incapax and
thus incapable
of forming
criminal intent.
For children to whom
preventive methods
do not apply, for
example, due to the
seriousness of the
offense, or who have
exhausted them, the
juvenile justice system
then operates in the
form of a Youth Court,
which hears cases of
ten to eighteen year
olds. This youth court
was established to
prevent children and
young people from
entering into contact
or associating with
adult suspects during
any phase of a trial.
Detention and
Training Order (DTO)
Persons aged
between twelve and
seventeen: can be
given a DTO that lasts
for between four
months and two
years. Half of the time
is spent in custody
and half in the
community.
The DTO can be made
available by the Home

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Secretary for the
persons between the
ages of eleven and
twelve when dealing
with a persistent
offender.
The court has a range
of different sentences
for young offenders;
for example,
supervision orders
that can have a variety
of conditions attached
to them or an Action
Plan Order, an
intensive, three
month long
community-based
programme.
More serious custodial
methods of
punishment are
detention and training
orders. These orders
are normally given to
children representing
a “high level of risk *to
the public, have a
significant offending
history or are
persistent offenders
and where no other
sentence will manage
their risks effectively.”
They apply for a
minimum period of
four months to a
maximum period of
two years, with half of
the sentence being
served in custody and
the remainder in the
community supervised
by a “youth offending”
team.

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Only those offenders
over the age of fifteen
may be sentenced to
detention in a young
offenders’ institution,
although this latter
restriction does not
apply to children aged
ten and over
convicted of murder
For very serious
offenses, children are
prosecuted in the
Crown Court. The
Crown Court can
sentence children
between ten and
eighteen years old
that have committed
an offense that is
punishable by
fourteen or more
years’ imprisonment
for adult offenders,
children that have
committed murder, or
certain sexual
offenses, may be
sentenced for up to
the adult maximum
for the same offense.
The young offenders
are not placed in
prisons alongside
adults, but can be
placed in secure
training centres,
secure children’s
homes, or young
offenders’ institutions.
Murder carries a life
sentence. For persons
convicted of murder
that are under
eighteen years of age
indefinite detention

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begins in a social
services secure
accommodation.
The person is then
transferred to a
young offender
institution at
eighteen and to
prison at twenty one.
The Lord Chief Justice
sets the length of
detention and it is for
the Parole Board to
determine whether
the young person
should be released.
(See: Section 90
Powers of Criminal
Courts (Sentencing)
Act 2000, as amended
by sections 60 (2)-(3)
of the Criminal Justice
and Court Services Act
2000)
In England and Wales,
a person under 21
cannot receive a
whole life tariff, the
equivalent of an
LWOP sentence,
because Schedule 21,
and 269(4) of the
Criminal Justice Act
2003 restricts such
sentences to persons
aged 21 or older.
4. IRELAND
( Republic of Ireland)
Children Act
2001
In October
2006, the age
of criminal
responsibility
was raised
from from 7
The juvenile court has
been replaced by a
new Children’s Court1
under the Children Act
(2001).
1
Part 7 of the Children Act (2001) relating to the Children Court has been implemented.

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years of age to
12 years of age
The age of
criminal
responsibility
in Northern
Ireland is 10
years old
The Children’s Court
has the power to deal
with both offending
and non-offending
children up to 18
years of age – this
represents a change
from the previous
legislation where the
court had jurisdiction
over children under-
17 years only.
The Children’s Court
has the power to deal
summarily with a child
charged with most,
but not all, indictable
offences. The decision
to be tried summarily
for an indictable
offence depends on
the age and maturity
of the child as well as
other relevant
factors.2
Excluded
indictable offences
include those which
are required to be
tried by the Circuit
Criminal Court or
manslaughter. In
these cases, young
people are treated like
their adult
counterparts in the
adversarial system.
The court may take
mitigating factors
such as the child’s age
and level of maturity
into consideration
when determining the
nature of any penalty

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imposed, unless the
penalty is fixed by law
while the fourth
principle posits that
the penalty imposed
on a child for an
offence should be no
greater (and may be
less) than that which
an adult would receive
for the same offence.
On 1 May 2012, an
Order was signed by
the Minister to end
the practice of
sending 16-year-olds
to St. Patrick’s
Institution ( an adult
secure prison) and all
newly remanded or
sentenced 16-year-
olds have since been
detained in the
children’s detention
facilities at
Oberstown.
The last 16-year-old in
St. Patrick’s was
released in July 2012.
The detention of 17-
years-olds in St
Patrick’s
will continue until the
completion of the new
facility in 2014
Once complete, the
three existing child
speciﬁc facilities on
the Oberstown
campus and the new
detention units will
create one single
detention facility. This
will accommodate all

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children on remand or
serving a sentence in
Ireland, as originally
provided for in the
Children Act 2001. It is
planned that an
amendment
will be made to the
Children Act 2001 to
provide a secure legal
framework for the
operation
of the campus as a
single integrated
facility
At present, females
aged 16 years and
over can be detained
in the Dochas Centre
which is a facility for
adult female
prisoners at Mountjoy
Prison.
For children detained
in Children Detention
Centres (16-18 year
olds) a sentence of
detention should not
exceed the terms of
imprisonment for an
adult convicted of the
same offence.
5. FRANCE Since the Order
of 2nd February
1945, a specific
justice system
applies to
children and
adolescents
under 18 years
of age, namely
juvenile justice
While the
onset of
criminal
responsibility
in France is age
13, children
aged 10-12
may be brought
before child
court judges
solely for the
In June 2011, French
Parliamentarians voted
on a new law in the
National Assembly
introducing a reform of
the juvenile justice
system. The law
provides for the creation
of a criminal court with
a juvenile judge to
adjudicate on recidivist
offenders aged 16 to 18

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purpose of
applying
security
measures,
provided that
child is at risk
Accordingly, it
is possible to
apply a
minimum age
excluding
serious
offenses.
Sentencing
young person’s
at least 13 but
not yet 17
happens as an
exception; as a
rule,
“educational
security
measures” are
applied instead
years. The law also
introduces new
procedures for faster
prosecution. The law
was largely criticised by
civil society as it
represents a regression
of juvenile justice and
puts in danger the
specificity of the justice
system for minors
Juvenile assize courts
try serious offences
committed by minors
from 16 to 18 years of
age in accordance
with the special
procedure applicable
to minors. These
courts comprise three
professional judges
and a civilian jury.
Minors are
considered criminally
responsible as soon
as they are "capable
of discernment".
Age of discernment is
set roughly between
the ages of 8 and 10,
from which age
minors can be
sentenced. Penalties
are adapted to the
age of the offender:
From 10 to 13 years
of age, educational
penalties can be
imposed on minors
(such as the
confiscation of an
object, for example). If
the minor concerned
does not comply with

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the penalty, he or
she may be placed
in a household or a
specialized centre for
juvenile offenders;
From 13 to 16 years
of age, minors may
be criminally
sentenced; they can
receive a prison
sentence, but are
liable to only half the
sentence prescribed
for adults; they cannot
be remanded in
custody, except if they
have committed a
serious offence;
From 16 to 18 years
of age, minors can
be remanded in
custody and the
excuse of minority
can be set aside.
Because juvenile
delinquents are now
younger and commit
more serious
offences, juvenile
justice has gradually
tended to accelerate
procedures and to
strengthen
educational
supervision.
A new piece of
legislation in France
allows children
between the ages of
16- 18 who have
twice or more re-
offended to be
sentenced as adults
and faced with harsh
prison sentences.

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6. ITALY Italian Penal
Code
Code of Penal
Procedure DPR
448/1988
Article 97 of
the Italian
Penal Code
states that a
person who has
not yet
reached the
age of 14 at the
moment when
he /she
commits a
crime must not
be punished
A person who has
reached the age of 14
but not 18 at the time
of committing a crime
and who is” capable
of understanding and
willing” must be
punished but the
punishment may be
reduced.
Between the ages of
14-18 the ability to
understand and to
form mental intent
must be clearly
ascertained in each
case by the presiding
judge
Concerning the
decisions that the
court can impose, the
penal code states that
the orders and
sentences applicable
to adults may also be
applied to minors with
considerable latitude
and reductions. If the
youth is deemed likely
to re offend he/she
can be confined to a
judicial reformatory
7. NETHERLANDS 1 Children’s
Rights Act and
Code of
Criminal
Procedure of
the
Netherlands
2 Amendment
to the Juvenile
Criminal Law
(1995)
Children under
the age of 12
cannot be held
criminally
responsible.
Similarly
juvenile law
can be applied
to young
people aged
In exceptional cases
16 and 17 year olds
can be tried according
to adult law.
The punishment of
juveniles with
incarceration is
generally stipulated
for serious crimes, i.e.
for crimes that carry a

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3 Youth
Custodial
Institutions Act
(Sept 2001)
18–20 years
who function
mentally at a
much younger
age
punishment of over 4
years imprisonment
for adults.
Young people who
have not yet turned
16 at the time of the
crime may be
sentenced to a
maximum of 1 year in
prison.
For offenders
between 16-18 years,
maximum sentence is
2 years in prison.
When the punishment
of incarceration is
necessary for more
than 6 months, a
report must be
obtained from a
psychologist who is
required to meet the
child in prison.
In the Netherlands
there is the
(theoretical)
possibility of life
imprisonment with
the possibility for
parole, restricted to
juveniles at least 16
years in age.
8. GERMANY The Juvenile
Welfare Act
(JWA)
Minimum age
of criminal
responsibility is
14 years.
A juvenile
offender older
than 14 and
less than 18
years of age
can
be punished, if
Only a small part of
the convicted
juveniles is sent to
prison; in 2009,
unsuspended youth
penalty was imposed
on 2,076 convicted
minors only.
The minimum length
of youth
imprisonment is six

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he or she has
reached a level
of moral and
intellectual
maturity
sufficient to
enable him/her
to understand
the
wrongfulness
of the act and
to conduct
himself in
accordance
with such
understanding
months, the maximum
five years, for 14 -17
year-old juveniles.
In cases of very
serious crimes for
which adults could be
punished with more
than ten years of
imprisonment, the
maximum length of
youth imprisonment is
ten years. In the case
of 18-20 year-old
young adults
sentenced according
to the JJA the
maximum penalty is
ten years, too. The
preconditions for
youth imprisonment
are either the
“dangerous
tendencies” of the
offender that are
likely to exclude
community sanctions
as inappropriate, or
the “gravity of guilt”
concerning particular,
serious crimes (like
murder, aggravated
robbery etc
9. SWEDEN In Sweden
there is a
special law
(1964:167)
concerning
juvenile
perpetrators.
This law deals
with persons
who have not
reached the
age of twenty
one. It is quite
an extensive
law that cannot
The definition
of “young
offenders” in
Sweden is
offenders who
have reached
the age of 15
but have not
yet turned 21.
The age of
criminal liability
is 15 and 21
was previously
the year in
which one
Young offenders can
be sentenced to
special sanctions for
young people, but also
to other sanctions.
The special sanctions
youth care and youth
service are based
more on the best
interests of the child
and on the young
person’s social
situation than on the
penal value of the
crime. Closed youth

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be referred to
in its entirety
came of age.
Today the age
has been
lowered to 18,
but special
circumstances
still apply to
offenders aged
between 18
and 20.
detention is, on the
other hand, intended
as an alternative to
prison in the case of
especially serious
crimes, and is
determined entirely
on the basis of the
penal value of the
offence.
10. BELGIUM Youth
Protection Act
of 1965
modified May
15th 2006
Law of June
13th
2006
amending the
legislation
relating to the
protection of
youth and takes
charge of
minors who
have
committed an
act qualified as
an offence
Children aren’t
criminal
responsible
below the age
of eighteen.
The youth court
imposes no
punishments
like in adult
courts, but
‘educational
measures’
Besides criminal cases,
the youth court is also
competent to try
cases of children in
need of care, and
deviant behaviour (i.e.
truancy). In practice, it
occurs that the police
demand juveniles to
participate in
educational training
such as traffic courses
or to restore small
damages. If the
deviant behaviour of a
young person reveals
a “problematic
educational situation”,
they can refer him
(and his parents) to
social support
agencies (yet without
conditions).
While most
delinquent minors
appear before youth
court, the juvenile
judge can however,
exceptionally decide
to refer a juvenile
offender aged over 16
to the Public
Prosecutor with the
intent of prosecuting
and sentencing the
minor in adult court
(‘transfer to adult

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court’)
11. INDIA Juvenile Justice
(Care and
Protection of
Children) Act,
2000, as
amended in
2006 and 2011
Juvenile Justice
(Care and
Protection of
Children) Rules,
2007
Indian Penal
Code, 1860
The Indian
Penal Code sets
the minimum
age of criminal
responsibility at
7 years under
Section 82 (the
doli incapax
provision) -
“Nothing is an
offence which
is done by a
child under
seven years of
age.”
Section 83 of
the Code
specifies the
age within
which children
are presumed
doli incapax
unless the
prosecution
proves
otherwise. This
section states,
“Nothing is an
offence which
is done by a
child above
seven years of
age and
under twelve,
who has not
attained
sufficient
maturity of
understanding
to judge of the
nature and
consequences
of his conduct
on that
There is no concept of
punishment in the
Juvenile Justice Act.
The law provides for
different kinds of
orders that may be
passed by the Juvenile
Justice Board dealing
with offences
committed by children
below the age of 18
years. These include:
• Allow the juvenile
to go home after
advice.
• Direct the juvenile
to participate in
group counselling.
• Order the juvenile
to perform
community
service.
• Order the parent
or the juvenile
himself to pay a
fine.
• Direct to be
released on
probation of good
conduct.
• Directing to be
sent to a special
home subject to a
maximum period
of three years
irrespective of the
nature of offence
committed.
The Board shall obtain
& consider the finding
of social investigation
report (SIR) while
making its order.

21
occasion.”
No juvenile found
guilty of committing
an offence can be
sentenced to death or
life imprisonment.
No juvenile found
guilty of committing
an can be committed
to prison in default of
payment of fine or in
default of furnishing
security.
A child in conflict with
the law can also be
treated as a child in
need of care and
protection in certain
cases such as in the
case of a child in the
7-12 year age group
caught for a petty
offence or in the case
of a first time
offender. In such
cases the child will be
transferred to the
Child Welfare
Committee for care,
protection and
rehabilitation.
12. PAKISTAN Juvenile Justice
System
Ordinance,
2000
Section 82 of
the Pakistan
Penal Code sets
the age of
criminal
responsibility
for most
offences at
seven, while
Section 83 it is
presumed that
children
between case
Where a child under
the age of fifteen
years is arrested or
detained for an
offence, which is
punishable with
imprisonment of less
than ten years, shall
be treated as if he was
accused of
commission of a
bailable offence. No
child under the age of

22
of children
between 7 and
12 years of age
are doli incapax
the prosecution
and so the
prosecution
must prove the
child knew
their acts were
'seriously
wrong’
fifteen years shall be
arrested under any of
the laws dealing with
preventive detention
or under the
provisions of Chapter
VIII of the Code.
Provided that where a
child of the age of
fifteen years or above
is arrested, the Court
may refuse to grant
bail if there are
reasonable grounds to
believe that such child
is involved in an
offence which in its
opinion is serious,
heinous, gruesome,
brutal, sensational in
character or shocking
to public morality or
he is a previous
convict of an offence
punishable with death
or imprisonment for
life.
13. SRI LANKA The law on
juveniles is
governed by
the Children
and Young
Peoples
Ordinance
Minimum age
of criminal
responsibility is
set at eight
years.
Between eight and
twelve years, the
judge has
discretionary powers
to hold a child
criminally
accountable, or not,
based on judge’s
judgment on whether
the child has attained
sufficient maturity of
understanding the
nature of
consequences of his
conduct on that
occasion. Children
above 12 years can be
charged with criminal
liability regardless of
they have attained

23
sufficient maturity to
understand the nature
and the consequences
of their conduct.
Children between 14-
16 are considered as
young persons.
Children between 16
and 18 are treated as
adults by the criminal
justice system.
14. MALDIVES LAW ON THE
PROTECTION
OF
THE RIGHTS OF
CHILDREN
Article 9 of this
law requires
the
establishment
of a special
procedure in
cases involving
juvenile
delinquents
A Juvenile
Justice Bill is in
its draft
stages and the
JJU has been
placed under
the Home
Ministry
Although the
Maldives
heralded a
modern new
democratic
Constitution in
2008, much of
the
corresponding
legislation aimed
at reforming the
criminal justice
Minimum age
of criminal
responsibility,
is set at 10
years
Children between 16
and 18 years are
considered as adults
in the Maldives.
Juvenile offenders are
kept either in
Dhoonidhoo where
criminal detainees and
political prisoners are
housed, during
investigation. The
difference between
adults and juvenile
detainees are that
adults are housed in
cells while juveniles
are kept in tents.
Upon sentencing they
are transferred to the
regular jail for adults
or transferred home
to house arrest.
Corporal punishment
is lawful as a sentence
for crime and for
disciplinary purposes;
Regardless of the
outcome of the family
conferencing or the
court decision, schools
are forced to expel
children in conflict
with the law from
school as they need to

24
system and the
juvenile justice
system remains
comply with
regulations set by the
Ministry of Education.
In 2009, a
“Correctional
Training Centre for
Children” for at-risk
young people was
established and offers
life skills programmes
and vocational
training.
15. SINGAPORE Children and
Young Persons
(Amendment)
Act of 2001 is
the key
legislation
governing the
administration
of juvenile
justice in
Singapore.
Welfare of the
juvenile is a
guiding
principle of this
Act.
The Act
determines the
jurisdiction of
the Juvenile
Court for
persons aged 7
to under 16
year olds
Pre-Court
Diversionary
Measures
a. Release the juvenile
with a warning
to both the juvenile
and the parents
or guardians
Discharge the case
conditionally or
unconditionally;
b. Place a bond on the
parent/guardian
to ensure proper care
and supervision
of the juvenile;
c. Place the juvenile
under the care of a
“fit person”;
d. Place him/her on
stand alone
community service
order;
e. Place him/her on
stand alone
weekend detention;
f. Place him/her on
probation for a
period ranging from 6
month to 3
years with or without
conditions
(which may include
requiring him/her

25
to go for periodic
training as a
condition of
probation) and with or
without a condition of
residency in a
probation hostel for
up to 12 months;
g. Order the juvenile
to be detained for a
period not exceeding
3 months and
place him/her on
probation upon
discharge;
h. Order him/her to be
detained for a
period of not more
than 6 months;
i.Order the juvenile to
be committed to
an Approved School
for juvenile
offenders for
rehabilitation for a
period between 24 to
36 months;
j. Require the juvenile
and parents to
participate in family
conferencing;
k. Require the parents
to go for
mandatory
counselling
Institutionalization of
a young offender
is considered only as
a last resort after all
else have failed and
when it becomes
sufficiently clear that
committing a young
Offender to an
institution is really in
his/ her best interest.

26
16. PHILLIPINES "Juvenile
Justice and
Welfare Act of
2006.
With the
signing of the
Juvenile Justice
and Welfare
Act 2006 by
President
Gloria
Macapagal-
Arroyo, the
Philippines
introduced a
new juvenile
justice system
A child fifteen
(15) years of
age or under at
the time of the
commission of
the offense
shall be exempt
from criminal
liability.
However, the
child shall be
subjected to an
intervention
program
pursuant to
Section 20 of
this Act.
The Juvenile
Justice and
Welfare Council
(JJWC) has
opposed a
House bill
seeking to lower
the minimum
age of criminal
responsibility to
over 12 years
old.
A child above fifteen
(15) years but below
eighteen (18) years of
age shall likewise be
exempt from criminal
liability and be
subjected to an
intervention program,
unless he/she has
acted with
discernment, in which
case, such child shall
be subjected to the
appropriate
proceedings in
accordance with this
Act.
Where the imposable
penalty for the crime
committed exceeds six
(6) years
imprisonment,
diversion measures
may be resorted to
only by the court.
Institutionalization or
detention of the child
pending trial shall be
used only as a
measure of last resort
and for the shortest
possible period of
time.
Whenever detention
is necessary, a child
will always be
detained in youth
detention homes
established by local
governments,
pursuant to Section 8
of the Family Courts
Act, in the city or
municipality where

27
the child resides
17. MALAYSIA The Child Act of
2001 (Act 611)
sets the
standards for
juvenile justice
with regards to
Malaysian law.
(The court
handling child
matters were
known as the
Juvenile Court
but currently,
when the Child
Act 2001 came
into force in
2002, the court
is renamed
‘Court for
Children.’)
Malaysian
Penal Code
stipulates 10 to
be the age of
attainment of
criminal
responsibility
but children
between 10
and below 12
who have not
shown
sufficient
maturity may
be absolved
from criminality
as well.
Evidence Act 1950
provides an additional
protection for boys
below 13 where they
are presumed to be
incapable of
committing the
offence of rape.
Should a child
between 10 and 12 be
charged; he may
invoke ‘infancy’ as a
defence. In
conclusion, children
from 10 to 18 may be
liable for any criminal
charges in the Court
for Children unless the
offence is punishable
with death3
whereupon the trial
will then be
conducted in the High
Court
18. CHINA It has adopted
two
independent
laws: the Law
on the
Protection of
Minors
(adopted at the
21st session of
the Seventh
National
People's
Congress in
September
1991) and the
Law on the
Prevention of
Juvenile Crimes
(adopted at the
10th session of
14 years China holds more than
60 percent of juvenile
offenders in custody
(either prison or
administrative
detention) and places
only 30 percent on
probation.
As of January 2013,
China’s Criminal
Procedure Law
requires record
sealing for juveniles
who have been
sentenced to less than
five years
imprisonment.
“Conditional
nonprosecution,” a

28
the Ninth
National
People's
Congress in
June 1999).
The
revised Criminal
Procedure Law of
the People's
Republic of
China, which
took effect on
January 1, 2013,
has 11 articles
designed to
improve the way
juvenile
offenders are
handled by the
Chinese justice
system.
concept modeled
after “diversion”
practiced in the West,
will allow youth who
commit minor
offenses to avoid jail
time by successfully
completing six to 12
months’ probation.
Although juveniles
who commit
“extremely serious
crimes” can be given
up to life
imprisonment,
maximum terms are
rarely used and are
discouraged by the
national policies of
“combining leniency
and severity” and
“education first,
punishment second.”
In 1997, revisions to
China’s Criminal Law
lowered the maximum
sentence for juveniles
to life imprisonment
from “death with two-
year reprieve.” The
latter is a death
sentence that is
modified to a term of
life imprisonment or
fixed-term
imprisonment of 25
years, both with the
possibility of
reduction, as long as
no deliberate offense
is committed during
the initial two years of
imprisonment.
19. JAPAN Juvenile law
1949 (
Age of criminal
responsibility is
The judge may make
one of the following

29
amended in
2000, 2007,
2008)
14 years or
older.
Treatment of
cases of
delinquent
children under-
14, therefore, is
in accordance
with
educational
and welfare
perspectives.
Children under
fourteen years
old, however,
are handled
primarily by the
child guidance
center, as
provided by the
Child Welfare
Law, when they
have
committed
acts, which, if
committed by a
person aged
fourteen or
over, would
constitute a
crime.
decisions: (1) to
dismiss the case; (2) to
refer the case to the
governor of the
prefecture or the chief
of the child guidance
center; (3) to place
the juvenile under
probation, a support
facility, or a juvenile
training school; and
(4) to refer the case to
the public prosecutor.
The last decision can
be made when the
juvenile is fourteen
years old or over at
the time of the
criminal acts and
when the judge finds
it is appropriate for
the juvenile to be
treated under the
regular criminal
procedure. As a
general rule, when the
juvenile is sixteen
years old or over and
has caused death by
an act done with
criminal intent, the
court refers him or her
to the public
prosecutor. When the
court chooses decision
(3), the juvenile may
file an appeal of the
case to the higher
court.
20. ISRAEL There is no
comprehensive
Children's Code
in Israeli law,
rather
provisions of
particular
Children under
the age of
twelve are not
criminally
liable.
Generally, such
children are put
A suspect must be
released if an
indictment has not
been filed against him
within 75 days of his
arrest; if a trial has not
commenced within 30

30
relevance to
children can be
found
throughout a
number of Laws
and Military
Orders.
in the care of
the child
protection
services, and
their acts are
likely to
constitute
grounds for
determining
that the minor
needs
protection
under the
Youth (Care
and
Supervision)
Law 5720-1960
days of filing the
indictment; and if
sentencing has not
been passed within
nine months. These
periods may be
extended by the
Supreme Court in
special circumstances.
When an indictment
has been filed, the
court must set the
earliest date possible
for commencement of
the trial. In the case of
a defendant who is a
minor, "save with the
consent of the
attorney general, a
minor will not be
brought to trial for an
offense if a year has
passed since its
commission"
21. SAUDI ARABIA The main laws
governing
juvenile justice
are the Juvenile
Justice Act
1975, the
Juvenile Justice
Regulations
1969, the Law
of Criminal
Procedure
2001, the
Detention and
Imprisonment
Act 1978, the
Detention
Regulation and
the Juvenile
Homes’
Regulation
1975, and the
Basic Law of
Governance
The minimum
age for criminal
responsibility
has reportedly
been raised
from 7 to 12,
but reports are
inconsistent
and the rise
does not apply
to girls or in
qisas cases.
There are three types
of offences – qisas
(punished by
retaliation), hadd (for
which the prescribed
penalty is mandatory),
and ta’zir (for which
the punishment is
discretionary).
Corporal punishment
(amputation and
flogging) is lawful as a
sentence for crime,
including for child
offenders.
Flogging is mandatory
for a number of
offences (hadd), and
can be ordered at the
discretion of judges
(ta’zir). Sentences

31
1992. All laws
are based on
Sharia.
( As of August
2012)
range from dozens to
thousands of lashes,
and are usually carried
out in installments, at
intervals ranging from
two weeks to one
month. The Juvenile
Justice Regulations
(1969) encourage
juvenile courts to
settle cases without
placing children in
supervised facilities
and to limit penalties
to admonishment,
guidance, counselling
or a reprimand, but
under the Juvenile
Justice Act (1975)
young persons under
18 may be sentenced
to corporal
punishment, including
flogging, stoning and
amputation.
Under the Law of
Criminal Procedure
(2001), amputation is
carried out pursuant
to a Royal Order
issued by the King or
his representative,
and must be
witnessed by
representatives of the
Administrative
Governor, the Court,
the Bureau of the
Promotion of Virtue
and Prevention of
Vice, and the police.
Saudi Arabia also
reported
the execution of one
juvenile in 2011.
22. UAE The main The minimum The Act allows for a

32
federal laws
governing
juvenile justice
are the Penal
Code 1987,
amended 2005,
the Criminal
Procedure Code
1992, amended
2005, the Law
of Evidence
1992, and the
Juvenile
Delinquents
and Vagrants
Act 1976.
age of criminal
responsibility
under criminal
law is seven.
The Juvenile
Delinquency
and Vagrants
Act defines a
juvenile as a
person under
18 at the time
of the offence
Under Shari’a
law, persons
typically
become liable
for Islamic
punishments at
the onset of
puberty
juvenile who has
reached the age of 16
to be punished under
the Penal Code,
substituting a
sentence of detention
not exceeding 10
years for that of
capital punishment.
Article 9 of juvenile
Delinquents and
Vagrants Act, 1976,
prohibits capital
punishment for a
juvenile delinquent.
There is no provision
for corporal
punishment as a
sentence of the courts
in the Penal Code, the
Juvenile Delinquents
and Vagrants Act or
other criminal law.
However, child
offenders may be
subject to corporal
punishment under
Shari’a law.
Punishments include
flogging, amputation,
and – as retaliation –
injury similar to that
for which the offender
has been convicted of
inflicting on the
victim.
23. AUSTRALIA New South
Wales- Young
Offenders Act
(1997)
Victoria-
Children, Youth
and Families
Act (2005)
Queensland-
In all Australian
jurisdictions
the statutory
minimum age
of criminal
responsibility is
now 10 years.
Between the
ages of 10 and
From 14 to either 17
or 18 years
(depending on
jurisdiction), young
offenders may be held
fully responsible for
their criminal acts but
are subject to a
different range of

33
Juvenile Justice
Act (1992)
Western
Australia-
Young
Offenders Act
(1994)
South
Australia-
Young
Offenders Act
(1993)
Tasmania-
Youth Justice
Act (1997)
Northern
Territory-
Youth Justice
Act (2005)
Australian
Capital
Territory-
Children and
Young People
Act (2008)
14 years, a
further
rebuttable
presumption
(known in
common law as
doli incapax)
operates to
deem a child
between the
ages of 10 and
14 incapable of
committing a
criminal act.
Only if the
prosecution
can rebut this
presumption,
by showing
that the
accused child
was able at the
relevant time
adequately to
distinguish
between right
and wrong, can
a contested
trial result in
conviction.
criminal sanctions
than adults
committing the same
offences.
24. NEW ZEALAND Children,
Young Persons,
and Their
Families Act
1989 (CYPF Act)
Certain sections
of the Act were
most recently
amended in
Dec 2012
Age of criminal
responsibility is
13 years except
for murder/
manslaughter
where the age
limit of 10
applies
New Zealand has
separate justice
processes for under
17 year olds – the
child offending
process for 10 to 13
year olds and the
youth justice process
for 14 to 16 year olds.
The separate systems
are based on the
premise that the
vulnerability of
younger people and
their generally more
immature judgement
means that they ought

34
to be treated
differently from adult
offenders.
Both processes have a
dual focus on
accountability and
rehabilitation.
Youth aged 14 to 16
can be formally
charged and
prosecuted for any
offence. Young people
aged 17 or over are
dealt with in the same
manner as adults.
When a child or young
person faces charges
for murder or
manslaughter the
charge is laid, and the
preliminary hearing
held, in the Youth
Court. If the Youth
Court finds there is
sufficient evidence to
proceed to a full trial,
the matter is
transferred to the
High Court.
In the remaining 16%
of cases, the young
person is arrested and
a charge is laid in the
Youth Court. As
already noted,
diversionary
mechanisms operate
to keep young people
away from the Youth
Court except in cases
of serious or
persistent offending.
This is achieved, in
part, because of the

35
stringent restrictions
on the right of the
police to arrest a
young person. The
CYPF Act strictly limits
arrest and in most
cases a young person
cannot be arrested
unless it is necessary,
and a summons is
considered not
sufficient to:
• prevent further
offending or prevent
the loss or destruction
of evidence or witness
interference;
• ensure appearance
before the Court, for
example in
circumstances where
the young person
refuses
to provide his or her
name and address to
the police
25. BRAZIL Juvenile
delinquency is
covered under
the provisions
of the Statute
of the Child and
Adolescent.
This act was
established in
the Penal Code
of 1940 and has
been revised
several times.
The Minor’s
Code, for
example, had
focused on
removing
delinquent
children from
the streets; it
Children under
the age of
twelve are not
criminally
responsible
Once arrested, a
youth under the age
of eighteen should be
released to a parent
or a responsible adult;
deprivation of liberty
should be limited to
serious cases in which
the youth’s safety or
the public order
requires it. If they are
detained, youths may
be held in police
lockups for no more
than five days, after
which they must be
released or
transferred to a
juvenile detention
center. Youths who
are held in police

36
was replaced in
1990 by the
Child and
Adolescent
Statute, which
placed greater
emphasis on
reinforcing
responsible
behaviour in
children.
lockups must be
placed “in a section
isolated from adults
and with appropriate
installations.
Delinquent youths
may be sentenced to
any of six “socio-
educational
measures”: warning,
reparations,
community service,
probation semi liberty,
and confinement in a
detention center. The
strictest of these
measures, detention
should be imposed
only when individually
warranted, in
exceptional
circumstances, and for
the shortest possible
time. This principle
conforms to the
standard set forth in
the Convention on the
Rights of the Child,
which provides that
arrest, detention, and
imprisonment of a
child “shall be used
only as a measure of
last resort and for the
shortest appropriate
period of time.”
Under Brazilian law,
detention of a youth
may last no more than
three years and may
not extend beyond
the age of twenty-
one. Regardless of
the length of the
sentence, the judge

37
must reevaluate the
decision to detain a
child at least every six
months.
26. PERU As of August
2012 a new
Code for
Children and
Adolescents
has been
drafted by the
Justice
Commission of
Congress and
will be debated
by politicians
soon.
12 years In Peru, the majority
of juvenile offenders
are incarcerated, even
in cases of petty
crime, with close to
68% having sentences
of three years or less.
Suspects between the
ages of 15 and 17 who
are accused of
terrorist acts do not
have access to the
specialized courts,
district attorney
offices, and defence
lawyers that are
available to other
juvenile offenders.
27. ARGENTINA Law no 22.278
In July 2009, a
bill on the legal
regime applying
to persons
under 18 years
of age who are
in conflict with
the law won
general
approval. This
bill, which is in
line with
international
standards in
this area, is
now in the
Chamber of
Deputies.
16 years
At present,
children
between 14
and 16 years
old are subject
to a protective
regime that
considers them
not subject to
criminal
responsibility
but at the same
time deprives
them of any
procedural
rights; as a
result, they are
regularly,
arbitrarily
deprived of
their freedom
The law and average
lengths of detention
are similarly difficult
to establish in
Argentina as there is
no clear limitation on
detention and judges
hold discretionary
power to sentence
children in conflict
with the law to prison
terms, with no need
to specify their length.
The Ministry of Justice
and Human Rights has
instructed security
forces to ensure that
they abide by human
rights standards in
cases where a person
under 18 years of age
is arrested on

38
suspicion of
committing a crime.
As of June 2010, 1,730
children and
adolescents were
being held in custodial
institutions, chiefly in
Buenos Aires, the
Autonomous City of
Buenos Aires and
Córdoba. It has been
provided that children
and adolescents who
have to be held
temporarily should be
lodged in certain
police stations that
have been identified
as being the most
appropriate facilities
for that purpose until
such time as a new
building to provide
temporary lodging can
be constructed.
28. CHILE Law on Juvenile
Criminal
Responsibility
14 years The new Chilean law
entered into force in
2007, was a
progressive first step;
however, it still allows
for harsh sentences to
be applied to children
–Fourteen to 16-year-
olds may be
sentenced to up to a
maximum of five years
in closed or semi-
closed detention
centres, where they
must take part in
social reinsertion
programmes. Over-
16s may be sentenced
to up to 10 years.
However, deprivation
of freedom must

39
always be used only as
a last resort.
Other penalties
provided in the law
include parole,
community service
and making
reparations for
damages caused.
Offenders who need it
will be offered drug
rehabilitation
treatment.
29. BOLIVIA Code on
Children and
Adolescents –
Protection,
Responsibility
and Jurisdiction
Law for
Criminal
Sentencing and
Supervision
12 is the age of
social
responsibility
16 of criminal
responsibility
The application of
Bolivian law is
differentiated into
two age groups: The
first group comprises
adolescents of 12 to
15, whose processing
is governed by the
Code for Children and
Adolescents, and is
headed by the Judges
of Children and
Adolescents.
Criminal acts of young
people from the ages
of 16 to 18 are
governed by the
criminal laws for
adults (Penal Code
and the Criminal
Procedure Code) and
are the responsibility
of judges and courts
for adults.
30. COSTA RICA The Juvenile
Criminal Justice
Act entered
into force
on 30 April
1996 and the
Children’s and
12 Years When considering
measures applicable
to children, the
Juvenile Criminal
Justice Act
further divides them
into two legal

40
Young People’s
Code on 6
February 1998,
both of which
derogate the
former
legislation on
minors.
categories: ﬁrstly,
children between 12
and 15 years of age,
and secondly, children
between 16 and
18 years of age
(Article 4)
In Costa Rica there are
2 main organisations
responsible for minors
deprived of liberty.
The National
Programme for the
Attention of the Penal
Juvenile Justice
Population, which
depends on the
Ministry of Justice, is
responsible for the
implementation of the
alternative sanctions.
According to Article
131 of the Juvenile
Criminal Justice Act,
the detention term
may be up to 15 years
when applied to
minors between 15
and 18 years old and
up to 10 years when
applied to minors
between 12 and 15
years old.
Furthermore,
according to Article
139, minors between
12 and 15 years old
shall be kept apart
from minors between
15 and 18 years old.
31. MEXICO Federal Law for
the Treatment
of Juvenile
Offenders
10 years Children between 11
and 18 years of age
are subject to special
courts for juvenile
offenders. Juveniles

41
In 2005, Article
18 of the
Mexican
Constitution 13
was modified
to require each
state to design
and implement
a juvenile
delinquency
system that
operates
separately from
the adult
criminal justice
system.
are assisted by
Guardianship
Councils, which are
responsible for the
care and protection of
juvenile defendants.
Children that are
accused of committing
an infraction must be
treated fairly and
humanely. Ill
treatment, incommuni
cado detention,
psychological coercion
or any other action
impairing the child’s
dignity or physical or
mental integrity
during legal
proceedings are
prohibited.
Minors who are found
responsible of
committing an
infraction may be
subject to a wide
variety of measures,
including:
Counseling
Educational and
vocational training
programs, and
other
rehabilitating
measures.
Warning
Admonition
Prohibition to go
to certain places
Prohibition to
drive motor
vehicles
Placement in
custodial homes
Confinement in

42
educational
institutions
32. EGYPT Chapter Eight
(“The Criminal
Treatment of
Children”) of
Child Law 12 of
1996 and its
implementing
regulations.
Juvenile
offenders
under the age
of 15 are for
the most part
not subject to
punitive
measures from
the state.
Article 112 of Egypt’s
Child Law (Law No. 12
of 1996 Promulgating
the Child Law, as
amended by Law No.
126 of 2008) states
that, “Children may
not be detained,
placed in custody, or
imprisoned with
adults in one place,”
The Egyptian Code of
Military Justice in
article 8 (bis) (1)
allows military
tribunals to try
juveniles if they are
accompanied by an
adult who is subject to
military jurisdiction,
including military
personnel or civilians
in military zones.
Measures for children
“vulnerable to
delinquency” and
children under 15 who
commit crimes range
from a rebuke to
commitment to a
social welfare
institution or
specialized hospital
for up to three years;
The penalty for
children over sixteen
who commit crimes
punishable by death is
a minimum of ten
years imprisonment,
or a minimum of
seven years
imprisonment for

43
crimes punishable by
permanent hard labor.
33. SOUTH AFRICA Child Justice
Act 2008
There are 3
categories of
children and
persons that
the Act applies
to:
1. Children
below 10 years
at the time of
the commission
of the offence –
section 9 sets
out procedures
that apply to
children under
10 years of age
who have
committed a
crime
2. Children
aged 10 years
and older but
younger than
18 years at the
time of
arrest or when
the summons
or written
notice was
served on them
3. Persons who
are 18 years or
older but
under 21 years
of age and who
committed an
offence when
under 18 years
of age –
Prosecutions
will issue
directives on
how this
section is to be
Based on the severity
of the offence, a child
may be placed in a
child and youth care
centre. If a child is 14
or older he / she may
be placed in a
specified prison
Section 29 deals with
detention of a child in
a child and youth care
centre and provides
that any child charged
with any offence can
be detained in these
facilities. In deciding
whether to place the
child in a child and
youth care the
presiding officer, in
terms of section 29(2)
must take the
following factors
into account:
• The age and
maturity of the child;
•The seriousness of
the offence in
question;
• The risk that the
child may be a danger
to himself, herself or
to any other person or
child in the child and
youth care centre;
• The appropriateness
of the level of security
of the child and youth
care centre differs
according to the
seriousness of the
offence allegedly
committed by the

44
applied in
practice.
child.
Section 30 deals with
detention of a child in
prison awaiting trial
and provides in
section 30(1) that a
presiding officer may
only send children to
prison awaiting trial if:
•The child is 14 years
or older and charged
with a Schedule 3
offence. However, in
terms of section
30(5) a presiding
officer can send a
child 14 years or older
charged with a
Schedule 1 or 2
offence
to prison awaiting trial
if, in addition to all the
factors listed in
section 30(1) and
subsection 3, there
are substantial and
compelling reasons to
do so, and these
reasons must be
placed on the record;
The detention is
necessary in the
interests of the
administration of
justice or the safety or
protection
of the public or the
child or another child
in detention;
• There is a likelihood
that the child, if
convicted, could be
sentenced to
imprisonment; and
• An application for
bail has been
postponed or refused

45
or the child has not
complied with bail
conditions once
granted.
Broadly speaking,
Schedule 1 contains
minor offences,
Schedule 2 more
serious offences and
Schedule
3 the most serious
offences. There are
also maximum time
limits for diversion set
out in section 53(5)
which are linked to
both the level of the
diversion option and
the age of offender.
Correctional
supervision
Correctional
supervision in terms
of section 276(1)(h) or
(i) of the Criminal
Procedure Act may be
imposed on a child of
14 years of age or
older.
However, only
correctional
of section 276(1)(h) of
the Criminal
Procedure Act may be
imposed on a child
younger than 14 years
of age. The reason for
this is that
correctional
of section 276(1)(i)
involves a period of
imprisonment, and
children under 14

46
years of age cannot
be sentenced to
prison.
Sentence to a child
and youth care centre
In terms of section
69(3), when
considering the
imposition of a
sentence involving
compulsory
residence in a child
and youth care centre,
a child justice court
must consider the
following:
•Whether the offence
is of such a serious
nature that it
indicates that the
child has a tendency
towards harmful
activities;
•Whether the harm
caused by the offence
indicates that a
residential sentence is
appropriate;
• The extent to which
the harm caused by
the offence can be
apportioned to the
culpability of the child
in causing or risking
the harm;
• Whether the child is
in need of a particular
service provided at a
centre;
• The seriousness of
the offence, with
regard to the amount
of harm done or
risked through the
offence and the

47
culpability of the child
in causing or risking
the harm;
•The protection of the
community;
The severity of the
impact of the offence
on the victim;
• The previous failure
of the child to respond
to non-residential
alternatives, if
applicable; and
•The desirability of
keeping the child out
of prison
In terms of section 76,
there are 2 types of
sentences to a child
and youth care centre.
The first involves the
sentencing of a child
to compulsory
residence in a child
which provides a
programme referred
to in section 191(2)(j)
of the Children’s Act.
A sentence like this
may be imposed for a
period not exceeding
5 years or for a period
which may not exceed
the date on which the
child in question turns
21 years of age,
whichever date is the
earliest.
The second occurs
when a child justice
court that convicts a
child of an offence
referred to in
Schedule 3 and which,

48
if committed by an
adult, would have
justified a term of
imprisonment
exceeding 10 years. In
such cases the court
may, if substantial and
compelling reasons
exist, in addition to a
sentence, sentence
the child to a period of
imprisonment which is
to be served after
completion of the
period of stay in the
centre. After
completion of the
time at the child and
youth care centre, the
child must be brought
before the child
justice court and the
manager of the child
must submit a report
to the court on the
child’s progress
regarding whether the
objectives of
sentencing have been
achieved and the
possibility of the
child’s reintegration
into society.

49
References
World Organisation against Torture OMCT, Rights of the Child in Costa Rica, 2000
http://www.omct.org/files/2001/11/1155/costaricacceng2000.pdf
Republic of South Africa, Child Justice Act, 2008
http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=108691
European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, Criminal Justice Systems in Europe and
North America, 2001
http://www.heuni.fi/uploads/fq98onbf0fojy.pdf
Human Rights Watch, Charged With Being Children: Egyptian Police Abuse of Children in
Need of Protection, Vol. 15, No. 1 (E) – February 2003
http://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/e/egypt/egypt0203.pdf
UNICEF, Improving the Protection of Children in Conflict with the Law in South Asia: A
Regional Parliamentary Guide on Juvenile Justice, 2007
http://www.ipu.org/PDF/publications/chil_law_en.pdf
Children Rights Alliance, Ireland, Report Card 2013: Is Government Keeping Its Promises to
Children?
http://www.childrensrights.ie/sites/default/files/submissions_reports/files/ReportCard2013
.pdf
UNICEF, Juvenile Justice Systems: Good Practices in Latin America, English Edition 2006
http://www.unicef.org/lac/JUSTICIA_PENALingles.pdf
Chomil Kamal, Directions of Juvenile Justice Reforms in Singapore
http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No59/No59_14VE_Kamal.pdf
Mairéad Seymour, Transition and Reform: Juvenile Justice in the Republic of Ireland
http://www.esc-eurocrim.org/files/ch05.pdf

50
Inter‐American Commission on Human Rights, Juvenile Justice and Human rights in the
Americas, July13, 2011
http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/children/docs/pdf/JuvenileJustice.pdf
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, Saudi Arabia Country Report,
August 2012
http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/pdfs/states-reports/Saudi%20Arabia.pdf
Gregor Urbas, Australian Institute of Criminology, Trends & issues in crime and criminal
justice: The Age of Criminal Responsibility, No. 181, November 2000
http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/0/0/A/%7B00A92691-0908-47BF-9311-
01AD743F01E1%7Dti181.pdf
Defence for Children International, Geneva, From Legislation to Action? Trends in Juvenile
Justice, Systems across 15 countries , 2007
http://www.defenceforchildren.org/files/DCI-JJ-Report-2007-FINAL-VERSION-with-
cover.pdf
Stephen J. O’ Driscoll, Youth Justice In New Zealand: A Restorative Justice Approach To
Reduce Youth Offending
http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No75/No75_10VE_O'Driscoll.pdf
CRIN - Child Rights International Network
http://www.crin.org/
Law library of congress
http://www.loc.gov/law/
International Juvenile Justice Observatory, Legal assistance for children in conflict with the
law
http://www.oijj.org/legal/situation.php?c=4&p=47
Patrick Griffin, Sean Addie, Benjamin Adams and Kathy Firestine, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, U.S Department of Justice, Trying Juveniles as adults: An
Analysis of State Transfer Laws and Reporting
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/232434.pdf

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