Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City

PARKING LOTS TO PARKS | 1 |
parks
parking lotsto *
concepts in sustainable
parking-lot planning and design

introduction
Chances are, you pass by dozens every day. Most days,
you use one or more. And you probably don’t spend much
time at all considering to what extent parking lots make up the
Kansas City region's urban and suburban landscapes.
Parking lots have a significant impact on consumers'
transportation habits, the local economy and the environment.
Parking provides accessibility and independence that allows
residents to choose where they live, work and play. Although
some amount of parking is essential, how much parking to
supply is a question with which many communities struggle.
When the automobile first became widely popular, too little
parking was a problem. Not enough parking causes crowding
and congestion, upsets business owners and increases time
spent getting to a destination. But more recently, too much
parking has become a problem. In the Kansas City region, large
masses of unoccupied parking are left unused for days, weeks
or even months. This underutilized infrastructure has both
direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Vast expanses
of asphalt contribute to the urban heat island effect, a warming
pattern induced by man-made structures. Surface parking lots
also impact the region’s air and water quality, and increase
stormwater runoff and the risk of flooding.
The Kansas City region comprises 4,423 square miles, more
than 840 of which is developed land. Although downtowns
generally have higher amounts of parking than suburban and
rural areas, in general, 10 percent of regions' urban areas are
More than 20 percent of the land cover in downtown Kansas City, Mo.,
is made up of off-street parking. This does not account for on-street
parking or underground parking garages — in reality the amount
of parking downtown is much greater. The map above highlights major
surface lots.

typically devoted to parking.1
A study by the Houston Advanced
Research Center found that 15 percent of Houston’s developed
area is dedicated to parking.2
If a similar 10–15 percent of
the Kansas City region’s developable area is dedicated to
parking lots, the region could have as much as 126 square
miles of parking.
Besides taking up land that could be used for other purposes,
an oversupply of parking has indirect effects. Expanses of
free parking can mask the true cost of driving and discourage
alternative modes of transportation, such as transit and cycling.
Parking is often called the link between transportation and
land-use planning. Although regions are required by federal
law to develop long-range transportation plans, parking is
guided primarily by local needs and development. Developing
sustainable regions must not only consider regional and local
assets, but also how those assets can be accessed by the
public. Sustainable parking policies encourage parking lots
that not only lessen their environmental impacts, but produce a
healthier society and economy.
This guide looks at parking strategies that aim to reduce overall
demand for parking, as well as design guidelines that reduce
the direct impacts of parking lots. Sustainable parking policy
has been discussed by professionals throughout the region
for the past year and a half. Through workshops, case studies,
national examples, conceptualizing local plans and research,
these professionals from varied backgrounds collaborated and
formed the Parking Lots to Parks Task Force. This document
reflects their recommendations and findings.
parking lots to parks project concept
Goal: Add more green space, or "parks," throughout
the region by redesigning parking lots to make them
more sustainable
Baseline: 51 square miles of parks, up to 126 square
miles of parking
Parks provide many benefits — including reduced air
temperature, stormwater filtration, and cleaner air and
water — that do not exist for most traditional parking
lots. Parks are designed for people, not for cars.
Making the region's existing parking lots more
sustainable will help offset the impacts parking lots
have and create greener, healthier environments.

| 4 | PARKING LOTS TO PARKS
sustainable parking: a snapshot of issues and solutions
the environmental issue
Parking lots are often made up of large expanses of dark
asphalt, which absorb sunlight and increase air and surface
temperatures. Increased temperatures lead to more energy used
to keep buildings cool, increased amounts of ozone pollution, and
decreased health and comfort. As the region loses green space
to pavement, it also creates large areas through which water can
no longer filter. This contributes to flash flooding, degraded water
quality, and stream and river erosion.
plant shade trees
Shade trees combat many of these problems by
blocking sunlight and reducing surface and air
temperatures. Requiring shade trees in parking
lots is one of the best solutions for reducing
the negative effects of large amounts of
paved surfaces.
the space issue
Parking lots are often built too large, and are therefore vacant
most of the time. Vast amounts of vacant parking are not only
an eyesore, they’re also a barrier for pedestrians and cyclists,
who often can’t cross them safely. Parking lots can also obscure
storefronts. These types of developments are difficult to serve by
transit, which further encourages automobile use.
set maximum parking ratios
The easiest way to cut down on the oversupply of
parking is to set maximum parking ratios, which
set an upper limit on parking.
the price issue
The majority of parking is “free.” But rather than paying directly
for parking, consumers pay for it indirectly through higher rent
on apartments, increased sale prices, or reduced paychecks. This
hides the economic and social costs of driving and perpetuates the
cycle that supports auto-travel subsidies, leaving other modes of
transportation struggling to catch up.
uncover the costs
By supporting alternative transportation, such
as transit and bicycle/pedestrian facilities,
consumers can begin to reduce dependence on
cars. Reducing free parking near transit stops
and pedestrian-friendly nodes helps support other
transportation modes.

impacts of parking
economic impacts
Parking is anything but free, but in many places, consumers
often pay nothing to park; the cost of parking is hidden by
charging higher prices for everything else. Donald Shoup,
professor of urban planning at the University of California–Los
Angeles notes that “we unknowingly support our cars with
almost every commercial transaction we make because a small
share of the money changing hands pays for parking.”3
Parking is only one of the many ways the region continues to
subsidize auto travel. As Greater Kansas City works to make
alternative modes of transportation viable, it should consider
strategies that unmask the cost of parking.
social impacts
Subsidizing auto transportation perpetuates a cycle of
dependence on the car, which not all citizens can afford. If you
live in a home, you probably have a place to park a vehicle — or
several. You probably didn’t have to request this space, but you
are paying for it whether you use it or not. Most homeowners
who don’t own cars still have to pay for the additional land
space and square footage used to house a car.
Although the cost of surface lots varies considerably across the U.S.,
studies show that the construction of a single surface parking space
could range from $2,000–$8,000.

environmental impacts
Urban Heat Island Effect
Without landscaping and trees, sunlight beats down on dark
pavement in parking lots, adding to the urban heat island
effect. The effect refers to the increased temperature that
urban environments experience over their grassier, rural
counterparts. The reduced vegetation and concentration of
dark, heat-absorbing materials, such as pavement and building
materials, can raise the temperature of an urban environment
up to 22 degrees above that of comparable countryside. These
increased temperatures lead to a number of problems including:
• Increased energy consumption. Peak utility loads
can increase 1.5–2 percent for every 1 degree increase
in temperature.5
• Thermal water pollution
• Increased ozone pollution
• Compromised human health and comfort
Parking lots constructed with dark materials and without
vegetation play a large role in contributing to the urban heat
island effect.
Air Quality
Parked cars emit evaporative hydrocarbons that contribute
to ozone pollution. The warmer a car’s fuel tank at rest, the
greater amount of emissions it produces — which is why
fighting the urban heat island effect is so important. Exposure
Unshaded asphalt surfaces can reach temperatures of 160 degrees, more
than twice as hot as vegetated surfaces with moist soil.4

to even low levels of ozone pollution has been shown to cause
a number of breathing problems, particularly in urban areas
where exposure occurs consistently over a long period of time.
Some of the ways that ozone pollution affects health include:
• Irritation of the respiratory system
• Reduced lung function
• Difficulty breathing
• Worsened asthma symptoms
• Damage to the lining of the lungs
Roughly one out of three people in the U.S. are at risk of
experiencing ozone-related health effects.6
Children, seniors
and adults who work outdoors are among the most susceptible
populations. The Environmental Protection Agency is in the
process of strengthening ozone standards due to increased
understanding about the health risks of ground-level ozone.
The region has struggled to meet ozone standards for decades,
and with stricter standards on the way, it is important that
strategies to reduce harmful emissions be considered.
Stormwater Volume and Impaired Water Quality
Parking lots are typically constructed out of impervious
surfaces — those that do not allow water to penetrate through
to the soil below. Instead of being absorbed into the soil, water
runs into storm drains that funnel stormwater into nearby
streams. This prevents groundwater recharge, increases
pollution in streams, increases the risk of flooding, and erodes
stream banks. Decreasing the amount of impervious surfaces
One small parking lot with 145 spots can generate as much as 34,000
gallons of stormwater during a single Kansas City rainstorm.

the region constructs can reduce flooding, allow soil and
vegetation to filter pollution, and help reduce the urban heat
island effect.
Parking lots, with their expansive amounts of impervious
surface, can lead to more frequent and severe flooding, and
as a result, decreased water quality. Flooding is the second
most common natural disaster across the country, second only
to fire. Since 1993, the region has suffered a cumulative total
of 14 deaths, $49 million in crop damages and $111.6 million
in property damage as a result of floods.7
The most common
and dangerous type of flood is a flash flood, which is generally
caused by brief, heavy rainfall. Parking areas have a high
amount of pollution from vehicle leaks, so it is important to
manage stormwater runoff from lots appropriately.
Parts of Kansas City, Mo., and Wyandotte County have
combined sewer systems. Stormwater runoff entering storm
drains within these communities mixes with raw sewage and
gets cleaned before returning to rivers. With combined sewer
systems, because of the large amount of impervious surfaces,
rain events often cause a sudden increase in stormwater
runoff, causing runoff mixed with raw sewage to back up
and overflow.
A flash flood on Brush Creek in July 2010 illustrates the importance of
managing stormwater wisely.

influences on parking
The amount and quality of parking lots throughout the Kansas
City region is a result of everyday decisions. If everyone
chooses to drive a vehicle daily, the demand for places to store
those vehicles increases. If people choose to ride a bike or
take the bus, demand for parking lots decreases. In addition to
consumer decisions, parking policy and guidelines are set forth
in local communities’ zoning codes. The region’s landscape
contains a patchwork of parking policies from the 120 cities that
make up the metro area.
This section examines topics — including travel trends and
parking policies — that help explain why the region has the
parking lots it does today.
population and density
There are about 1.9 million people living in Greater Kansas
City, and those residents are spread across about 4,423 square
miles. In the last several decades, population in the region
has shifted further away from the urban core. The region has
consistently maintained one of the lowest population densities
in the nation, and its location in the Great Plains has allowed
it to consume the plentiful, inexpensive land around it. The
way Greater Kansas City develops across its landscape affects
the region’s travel trends, and in turn, the supply and demand
of parking.
The average Kansas City resident
travels 29 miles per day, which puts
the city among the top 15 U.S. cities
of its size for most miles traveled
daily per capita.8

travel patterns
The relationship between where the region’s 1.9 million
residents live and where they work greatly impacts the need
for parking. Although populations continue to shift outward,
downtown remains a large employment hub. Significant
employment corridors also exist along I-35 and College
Boulevard in Johnson County. Although some individuals live
close enough to walk to work, most of the region does not have
that option. In 2008, 82 percent of commuters in the Kansas
City region traveled to work by driving alone.
Supplying free parking reinforces single-occupancy vehicle
trips. The region’s low-density development pattern also
impacts the number of vehicle trips in the region and the
distance traveled on each of those trips. Land-use and
transportation patterns necessitate a large amount of
transportation infrastructure to serve the area. The Kansas City
region holds the national record for greatest number of lane-
miles per capita. This infrastructure correlates with low traffic
congestion and the ability to travel further, faster.
The spatial mismatch between population and employment, as
well as the well-established highway infrastructure, correlates
with high per-capita vehicle miles traveled. In fact, the region
has a 20 percent higher-than-average auto travel rate than
other metropolitan areas its size.
alternative transportation
Transportation is the second-largest source of greenhouse gas
emissions in the U.S., accounting for 27 percent of emissions
In 2008, 82 percent of commuters in the Kansas City region traveled to
work by driving alone.

since 1990.9
The region’s rate of walking and bicycling as a
percent of trips is about one-half the national average. Although
these figures did increase from 1990 to 2004, they are still
increasing at half the rate of the national average. The region
also has a patchwork of different transit providers. Only 2
percent of the population traveled to work by transit in 2008.
But the decision to use alternative transportation cannot happen
if opportunities aren’t made available. Currently only 42 percent
of the region’s population has transit available within a half-mile
— about a 10-minute walk.
planning and policy
Both regional and local policies impact parking and the region’s
overall transportation system. Transportation Outlook 2040, the
region’s long-range transportation plan, guides transportation
infrastructure decisions based on a regional vision and goals.
At the local level, zoning codes guide land-use decisions.
Coordinated land-use planning is key for the success of a
regional vision.
Zoning codes in cities throughout the region affect both the
amount of parking and the design of parking. Most cities
determine parking supply by requiring a minimum number
of parking spaces for different types of development. The
design of parking lots is often guided by parking stall-size
requirements and interior landscaping requirements. These
policies are key in influencing daily modal choice and urban
design throughout the region.
Currently only 42 percent of the
region’s population has transit
available within a half-mile —
about a 10-minute walk.

Transportation Outlook
2040 goals
Local Parking Policy
Traditional Challenges Opportunities
Accessibility Maximize mobility and access to
opportunities for all residents.
Providing too much parking encourages car
use and discourages alternative travel.
Maximum parking requirements make other
modes of transportation — such as walking,
biking and transit — more viable options.
Climate Change and Energy Use Decrease
fossil fuel use by reducing travel demand,
supporting technology advancements and
making the transition to renewable energy.
Parking availability increases energy and
fossil-fuel use by encouraging driving.
Economic Vitality Support an innovative,
competitive economy.
Too much parking wastes money on land and
maintenance. Free parking itself creates no
local tax revenue.
Turning parking lots into parks or other
community assets can create new opportunities
to generate revenue.
Environment Protect and restore the
region’s natural resources through proactive
environmental stewardship.
Traditional parking-lot design often does not
mitigate environmental impacts.
Green parking-lot design — such as adding shade
trees and energy-friendly lighting — reduces the
impact parking has on the environment.
Place Making Coordinate transportation and
land-use planning to create quality places in
existing and developing areas.
An abundance of unused parking does not
contribute to a place’s identity.
Changing the location of parking lots from the
front of a building to the side or back creates
inviting storefronts.
Public Health Facilitate healthy, active living.
Free parking encourages driving over walking
or taking alternative transportation.
Maximum parking requirements and altering
the location of parking makes alternative, active
transportation more viable.
Safety and Security Improve safety and
security for all transportation users.
Parking lots are often unsafe environments
for pedestrians.
Lighting levels and the location of parking in
relation to development help provide safety and
security for pedestrians.
System Condition Ensure the transportation
system is in good condition.
Large, underused parking lots create
maintenance traps.
Constructing fewer new parking lots saves
money, which can be used to better maintain
existing infrastructure.
System Performance Manage the system to
achieve reliable and efficient performance.
Without knowing the current supply of parking
and what percent is actually used, the region
continues to pave more than it needs.
Look for innovative ways to use and retrofit
existing parking lots.

the road to
sustainable parking
This section identifies a few of the many strategies that the
region could consider to reduce parking supply and demand.
Several of these strategies are already in action or have been
recently put into place by area cities. Some of those projects
are noted where applicable.
The first step toward sustainable parking is to ensure that too
much parking is not built, and the second is to reduce demand
for parking.
reducing parking supply
Maximum Parking Requirements
Flexible Parking Options
Shared Parking
Landscaped Reserves
reducing demand for parking
Transit Investment and Transit-Oriented Design
Unbundling Parking
Bicycle Requirements
Traditional surface parking lots are part of Kansas City's landscape.
But do they need to be?

maximum parking requirements
What is it?
A maximum parking ratio establishes a maximum amount of
parking that can be built for a particular development. Maximum
parking ratios work the same way minimum ratios do — by
setting out a parking ratio based on land use that cannot be
exceeded. Maximum parking ratios can work independently or
in conjunction with minimum parking ratios.
Why change?
The opposite of maximum ratios, minimum ratios were adopted
by most communities in the 1950s and 1960s as the first form
of parking requirements. Minimum parking ratios worked for a
long time doing the job they were intended to do: ensuring the
growing number of automobiles had a place to park. Today, the
region faces a different problem than it did a half-century ago:
too much parking.
Minimum parking ratios often require more parking than is
needed. There are two main reasons for this. The first is that
they often do not reflect actual demand for parking. Some
cities implemented parking ratios many years ago and haven’t
updated them. Other communities use national ratio standards
or copy other cities’ requirements when looking for minimums,
which do not accurately reflect demand in their community.
Another reason minimum parking ratios are inefficient is
that they reflect peak demand rather than typical or average
demand. A retail store for instance, may be required to provide
Businesses that supplement on-street parking with smaller lots help
communities make the most out of surrounding land.

enough parking for customers shopping on the busiest day of
the year, rather than an average day. This leaves the majority of
parking spaces sitting vacant a most of the time.
Another problem with minimum parking ratios is that they
encourage more parking than needed. Developers often
build two to three times the amount of parking required; but
sometimes, this is due to the fact that many lenders require
additional parking. Local regulations for maximum parking
could help respond to this challenge.
Maximum parking ratios can be particularly beneficial in
suburban settings, where “big box” developments routinely
overbuild their parking supply. But communities hesitant
to relinquish minimum parking requirements have the
ability to develop maximum parking ratios as well. By
keeping minimum ratios and establishing maximum ratios,
communities provide a comfortable range that developers can
build within while ensuring developers provide enough — but
not too much — parking.
Local examples
The cities of Leawood and Liberty both have maximum parking
requirements in place. Leawood does not allow more parking
than the minimum requirements without approval. In other
words, the city’s parking ratios function both as minimum and
maximum requirements. Liberty requires developments not to
exceed 150 percent of the minimum parking requirements.
The value of the free-parking
subsidy to cars was at least
$127 billion in 2002, and possibly
much more.3

shared parking
What is it?
Shared parking reduces minimum parking requirements for
new development in close proximity to another parking lot or
lots that are being used at different peak-demand periods. For
instance, an office building near a restaurant or bar provides an
opportunity for shared parking arrangements. Office buildings
experience most of their business during weekday business
hours, and a restaurant or bar experiences peak demand on
nights and weekends.
Why change?
No parking lot is full around the clock. Most parking lots have a
specific time that they receive the majority of their use. There
are few reasons why two businesses or organizations located
next to one another cannot share parking. Shared parking
reduces the overall amount of land dedicated to parking,
providing more efficient use of that land and saving space for
other amenities.
Local examples
Across the region, shared parking policies are much more
prevalent than many other sustainable parking practices. About
half of communities that participated in a regional survey had
some form of shared parking policy.
Three restaurants sharing the same lot still makes for plentiful parking in
downtown Kansas City, Mo.

landscaped parking reserves
What are they?
Landscaped parking reserves allow for a percentage of
required parking to be left as landscaping, or a land bank, to be
developed if and when the full amount of parking is needed.
Why change?
Many types of development do not experience their anticipated
demand immediately, but rather slowly over time. Other
types of developments are completed in phases, which can
take years. Landscaped reserves are a viable option that allow
for increased demand over time.
Sometimes, the demand for parking on a site is not really
known, and providing a landscaped reserve can allow
jurisdictions to provide less parking while feeling comfortable
about having options to expand parking in the future. Building
uses and demand for parking can change over time regardless
of how a parking lot is built the first time. Landscaped reserves
help communities supply less parking, especially when there
are still concerns about running out in the future.
Local examples
Several cities across the region are managing space effectively;
Excelsior Springs, Mission and Harrisonville all allow for
landscaped reserves.
Building uses and demand for
parking can change over time
regardless of how a parking lot
is built the first time.

transit investments and
transit-oriented development (TOD)
What is it?
Investing in transit and policies that support transit is one of the
most effective ways to reduce demand for parking. This can be
done by investing directly in transit services and amenities, or
by encouraging TODs or location-efficient “pedestrian pockets,”
which contain a mix of different types of development around a
transit station.
Why change?
Transit services have to compete with the automobile, which
is heavily subsidized. To give transit a chance to succeed,
parking supplies must be reduced around transit investments.
Several cities within the region have created overlay districts,
which encourage TOD or pedestrian-friendly environments.
Eliminating or reducing parking within these districts is key to
their success.
Local examples
The city of Kansas City, Mo., allows for a reduction in parking
for lots located within 500 feet of a rapid-transit stop. Other
cities, such as Lenexa, allow for a reduction when a developer
can show that a portion of parking demand is met by transit.
Pedestrian- and transit-friendly areas like this one in the Kansas City,
Mo., Jazz District encourage the use of transportation modes other
than cars.

unbundling parking
What is it?
“Unbundling” parking means separating the cost of parking
from other expenses that are often lumped together. A common
example is renting an apartment, where the cost of renting a
parking space is included as part of the price of renting the
apartment. Unbundled parking would provide consumers the
option of also renting a parking space rather than having it
included in the rent cost.
Why?
The cost of parking is generally lumped in with other costs,
masking the true price of parking. Unbundled parking allows
individuals to not only realize the true cost of parking, but
to decide for themselves whether or not to pay for parking.
Unbundled parking is a great strategy in urban areas where
individuals may bike or choose transit rather than owning their
own vehicles.
National example
A condominium development located only a block from the
MetroLink public transit system in St. Louis sold parking spaces
separately from the units. The development found that 20–25
percent of buyers, when offered the choice, opted not to
purchase a parking space.10
On-street parking for residents is one example of how the cost of parking
can be separated from costs that traditionally include hidden parking fees,
such as rent.

bicycle requirements
What are they?
Requiring bicycle facilities on-site is another way to reduce
demand for parking. More communities than ever are now
requiring a minimum number of bicycle facilities based on the
number of spaces allotted for vehicles.
Why change?
Providing bicycle facilities not only guarantees individuals a
place to park their bikes, but generally provides an atmosphere
that is more welcoming to cyclists and pedestrians, making it
easier to choose not to rely on an automobile.
Local examples
The city of Independence requires bicycle parking to be
provided in the amount of 5 percent of the obligated off-street
parking. Residential uses do not mandate bicycle parking, but
schools, libraries and swimming pools require an increased
amount of 10 percent of the obligated off-street parking.
The city of Kansas City, Mo., makes the distinction between
short- and long-term bicycle parking. In addition to the design
of the bicycle parking, Kansas City lays out size and location
requirements for both short- and long-term parking.
Ample bike parking is an essential part of encouraging the use of
alternative transportation.

sustainable parking design
Once investigation ensures that parking is not being
oversupplied, the next step is improving the design of
new and existing parking lots. Although communities can be
planned with reduced need for off-street parking, accessible
parking is still necessary to ensure consumer satisfaction and
economic viability. But to be sustainable, parking-lot design
must reduce the detrimental effect parking lots often have on
the environment.
Several concepts are covered in this section:
Shade-Tree Ordinances
Reduce Parking Dimensions
Cool Pavements
Bioretention
Efficient Lighting and Energy Use
Smart design can make a big difference in the environmental impact of a
parking lot.

shade-tree ordinances
What are they?
Requiring that shade trees be planted throughout the interior
and exterior rim of parking lots cools pavement and the
vehicles parked there. Shade-tree ordinances come in different
forms but the most common are:
• Requiring a percentage of parking lots to be shaded after
tree maturity (typically 10–15 years)
• Requiring a minimum number of trees be planted per
number of parking spaces
• Requiring parking spaces to be a minimum distance from
a shade tree
Why change?
Leaving paved surfaces uncovered allows them to collect
sunlight, which perpetuates the urban heat island effect. A
study done by NASA in Huntsville, Ala., showed that while
daytime temperatures around a mall parking lot had surface
temperatures of about 120 degrees, a tree island containing a
few small trees in the parking lot reached only 89 degrees.
Direct sunlight also heats up parked vehicles, causing
evaporation from a vehicle’s fuel delivery system. About 16
percent of evaporative emissions are the result of daytime
heating of parked vehicles.11
Shade trees lower the surface and
air temperature in parking lots, reducing the evaporation of
hydrocarbons from parked vehicles.
Shade trees keep cars cool and reduce the surface temperature of
parking lots.

Interior landscaping requirements are becoming more common
in the Kansas City region. These ordinances generally require
a percentage of a parking lot’s interior to be landscaped rather
than paved. Interior landscaping requirements are an easy
way to mandate vegetation in parking lots. Interior landscaping
requirements in the Kansas City region generally range from
5–10 percent, depending on the size of the parking lot and the
purpose it serves. Although interior vegetation requirements do
help, the shade benefits of trees are unparalleled in reducing
the urban heat island effect and capturing pollutants.
Local examples
In a survey of area communities, about half had a minimum
interior landscaping requirement, which averaged about 5
percent landscaping on the interior of the parking lot. Fewer
communities required trees to be planted on the interior of
parking lots. The communities of Raymore, Blue Springs
and Leawood all require one tree to be planted for every 10
parking spaces.
National example
Several communities in California require parking lots to be
50 percent shaded after 15 years. Although many of the cities
found that requiring developers to plant trees has been easy,
getting the full benefits of the trees has been more difficult.
Trees that are not planted properly or maintained often die
or do not develop to their full potential. Requiring minimum
dimensions for landscaped islands is one way to ensure trees
have a chance to fully develop.
A study done in Davis, Calif., found
that fuel tanks in shaded vehicles
were 3.6–7.2 degrees cooler than
the unshaded vehicles, reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.

reduce parking dimensions
What are they?
Parking-space dimensions in the region range from a modest
8.5-foot by 18-foot spot to a much larger 9-foot by 20-foot spot.
This difference may seem insignificant, but it adds up to a lot of
wasted land and unnecessary surfacing.
Why change?
The size of each parking space determines the amount of
impervious surface and land that a parking lot will take up.
Most cities have development guidelines that require parking
spaces to be a certain size, which ensures that the community
is getting adequately-sized parking spaces.
Parking spaces should reflect vehicle sizes. With compact
vehicles on the rise, opportunities exist to not only reduce
required stall sizes, but to also allow for compact
parking spaces.
In addition to smaller parking dimensions, many cities are
allowing the length of parking spaces to be reduced when
vehicles are adjacent to a curbed, landscaped area.
Local examples
The city of Kansas City, Mo., leads the region in allowing
developers to build compact parking spaces that measure 7.5
feet by 15 feet. Kansas City, Kan.; Lenexa and Grandview also
allow compact parking spaces.
Reducing parking dimensions can help make the most out of limited land.

cool pavements
What are they?
A cool pavement reflects a higher amount of sunlight than
typical pavement, creating a cooler surface temperatures.
Why change?
Changing material compositions in parking lots can reduce
the urban heat island effect. The solar reflectance index, or
SRI, is a composite index that the U.S. Green Building Council
and others use to estimate how hot a surface will get when
fully exposed to the sun. The surface temperature of an object
depends on its reflectance, emittance and solar radiation.
Emittance is an object’s ability to emit or transfer heat.
Concrete is a classic “cool pavement,” but cool pavements
include more than just white concrete. Permeable pavements,
which were originally developed for stormwater management,
are emerging as cool pavements due to their ability to cool
through evaporation. Another method, microsurfacing, applies
a thin layer of sealant onto a surface. Microsurfacing has
traditionally been applied for maintenance, but is now being
used to cool traditional pavements.
Local examples
The cities of Kansas City, Mo.; Independence; Leawood and
Mission all specifically allow pervious pavement. Other
communities may permit pervious pavement, but referencing it
directly in codes or ordinances may encourage its use.
Permeable pavements are emerging as cool pavements due to their ability
to cool through evaporation.

bioretention
What is it?
Bioretention areas are landscaping features engineered
to capture and filter stormwater runoff. Best management
practices (BMPs) include a variety of bioretention designs that
can be easily incorporated around the exterior of a parking
lot. Such features can also be incorporated into the interior of
parking lots and parking islands.
Why change?
Parking lots with impervious surfaces drain large amounts
of rainfall, which is often polluted by chemicals and oil from
vehicles. Bioretention areas allow this rainwater to collect
and filter back into the ground. Some parking lots may require
catch-basin restrictors or oil/grit separators in order to help
prevent chemicals from getting into the water system. As
communities increase their stormwater utility fees over time,
developers may have an additional incentive to incorporate
design features that reduce stormwater runoff.
Local example
Applebee’s Support Center in Overland Park incorporates
several stormwater treatment features including terraced,
vegetated swales in the parking lots; sediment basins; a surface
sand filter; and a downstream wetland. This combination of
features treats the pavement runoff near the source, which
allows oils, salts and sediments to be cleaned through on-site,
natural systems.
Plantings around or within parking lots help mitigate impacts from
stormwater runoff.

efficient lighting and energy use
What is it?
Much of the energy consumed by parking lots is used for
lighting. Because many parking lots stay lit 24 hours a day, it is
important to consider more sustainable lighting options.
Why change?
Safety and security is a major concern with parking lots.
Lighting helps illuminate parking spaces, aisles and pedestrian
walkways. Lighting should be appropriate in context and scale
to the environment.
Parking lots present challenges in balancing safety issues,
reduced energy consumption and light pollution. Using energy-
efficient fixtures and bulbs and aiming lighting downward helps
reduce energy consumption and light pollution.
Local example
The city of Lee’s Summit uses design standards that require
50 percent of parking-lot lighting to be solar-powered, or 100
percent of lighting to use LED fixtures. About 1.5 million metric tons of
carbon dioxide are released each
year as a result of lighting the
region's parking lots.

proper location
What is it?
Where parking lots are located in relation to city streets and
buildings has a big impact on the look of a community. Zoning
codes can regulate where parking is located. Some zoning
codes allow on-street parking spaces in close proximity to a
development to offset the required off-street parking.
Why change?
Parking lots are often placed between major corridors and
buildings, creating car-dominated areas. These environments
can not only be unappealing, they can be unsafe for pedestrians
because they often do not provide designated walkways.
To encourage pedestrian environments, parking should
be located behind buildings as opposed to in front. Many
communities are now requiring parking in certain districts to be
placed on the sides or behind buildings.
Limited parking in front can allow both pedestrians and drivers easy
access to stores.

concept plans
The Parking Lots to Parks Task Force completed concept
plans that would make a traditional parking lot in Kansas
City, Mo., more sustainable. The task force was divided into
two groups that each completed a plan in order to show a range
of options.
A parking lot at 12th Street and Broadway in downtown Kansas
City, Mo., was chosen as the site the teams would work to
reconceptualize. The parking lot contained none of the elements
the task force had been discussing, and it was in such bad
shape that a site plan for future improvements was underway
by the owner. The goals of the plans were to:
• Demonstrate sustainable parking-lot elements
• Apply principles of sustainability to the Kansas City region
• Provide cost estimates to show the feasibility of
the designs
The concept plans were completed over a five-month period.
Each plan emphasizes different elements, showing that there
can be many approaches to sustainability.
The Parking Lots to Parks Task Force worked in teams to re-envision the
parking lot at 12th Street and Broadway.

team A concept plan
Team A was torn between creating a concept plan that
maximized sustainable elements and creating a concept plan
that would be more feasible for a private owner — so the team
decided to create both.
The "Green Option" adds sustainable elements, brings the
parking lot up to code, and maximizes the number of parking
stalls and potential profit. The "Air Quality Enhanced Option"
incorporates many more sustainable concepts, including
additional canopy cover; permeable pavement; right-of-way
improvements to Broadway and 12th streets; and an inlet to
capture, clean and filter runoff from 12th Street.
Green features of the new designs included:
Green Option Air Quality Enhanced Green Option
• Rain garden • Rain garden
• 25.5-foot bioswale • 19.5-foot bioswale
• 43 shade trees • 50 shade trees
• Bicycle parking • Pervious pavement
• Bicycle parking
• Capture and treat street runoff
The team also conducted an ordinance comparison for Kansas
City, Mo.; Lenexa and Overland Park. It found that new code
provisions would be needed in order to allow for and require
more sustainable parking opportunities. For example,
some current city codes do not allow for reduced parking-
stall dimensions.

team B concept plan
Team B wanted to create a functional parking lot that met
Kansas City's sustainability goals, appealed to the public,
created income for the owner, and established a community
icon for sustainability. The team also wanted to incorporate
multiple methods of conserving stormwater on-site to prevent
thousands of gallons of dirty water from dumping into the city’s
combined stormwater-sewer system, costing the city money to
clean and process. The design also had to be attractive enough
to appropriately display the aesthetic quality of sustainable
planning and design features.
Green features of the new design included:
• Pervious concrete
• A living wall — a vertical arrangement of plants
• Indigenous plants and trees
• Monarch butterfly station
• Dry detention natural-stone swale
• Bioswales
• Natural sustainable materials used throughout the site
• Recycle, reduce and reuse trash receptacles
• Environmentally friendly, low-VOC paint for striping stalls
The team estimated that these changes could reduce
stormwater runoff by as much as 95 percent, saving the city
a significant amount in processing costs. The space would
also bring more revenue to the owner based on higher parking
fees because consumers would be more inclined to use the lot
after the redesign. The new site would also provide parking or
access for multiple modes of transportation, including bicycles,
cars and buses.
The group also developed recommendations for getting
sustainable lots built in the metro area:
• Present similar examples in other markets
• Show where similar examples are locally
• Calculate the financial benefit
• Communicate additional benefits, such as reduced erosion,
reduced heat-island effects through cooler pavement, and
increased safety and access
• Encourage cities to modify their codes and regulations
to encourage sustainable construction methods, mitigate
and filter stormwater runoff, and reduce the urban heat
island effect.

acknowledgements
The Parking Lots to Parks Task Force included Leslie Alford, Blue
River Watershed Association; Nate Baldwin, Platte County, Mo.;
Mike Beezhold, city of Lenexa, Kan.; Carrie Bradley, Burns &
McDonnell; Chris Calahan, OHH/OPP; Steve Casey, Lee's Summit
Parks; Noel Challis, Platte County, Mo.; Chris Chiodini, city of
Grandview, Mo.; Pete Davis, Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 7; Kristen DaMet, American Institute of Architects-Kansas
City; Pam Fortun, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Marc Govea, city of
Kansas City, Mo.; Steven Hamadi, Wilbur Smith Associates; Alice
Hannon, city of Lenexa, Kan.; Ted Hartsig, Olsson Associates; Kerry
Herndon, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Cate Holston,
Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Christina Hoxie, BNIM;
Gayle Hubert, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Erica Ise,
University of Missouri-Kansas City; Gary Kannenberg, Tellus Group;
Leslie Karr, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Tom Krahenbuhl, Jackson
County, Mo.; Mike Latka, city of Olathe, Kan.; Brenda Macke, CDM;
Dan Maginn, El Dorado Inc.; Christy Martin, Concrete Promotions;
Tony Meyers, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Dennis Murphey, city
of Kansas City, Mo.; Patty Noll, city of Kansas City, Mo.; Pete
Oppeumann, Oppeumann Land Design; Laura Pastine, BNIM; Tony
Reames, city of Lee's Summit, Mo.; Jerod Rivers, 180 Degrees
Urban Design; Aaron Ross, BNIM; Stan Salva, city of Sugar Creek,
Mo.; Andy Sauer, CDM; Jim Schuessler, BNIM; Joann Schwarberg,
Landscape Architect, LLC; Debra Smith, city of Kansas City, Mo.;
Kim Sorensen, OHH/ OPPC; Laura Turnbull, city of Lenexa, Kan.;
Jeff Umbreit, city of Independence, Mo.; Dave Watson, Tellus
Group; Gary Welty, city of Lee's Summit, Mo.; and Mandy Whitsitt,
Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7.
This book was prepared by MARC staff members Kassandra Shelton
and Stephanie Williams, with contributions from Jennifer Blattman,
Ginevera Moore, Amanda Graor and Tom Jacobs.
Parking Lots to Parks Task Force members and others participated in
several workshops on the topic of sustainable parking-lot design.

SUSTAINABLE SKYLINES
K A N S A S C I T Y
SUSTAINABLE SKYLINES
K A N S A S C I T Y
about this project
sustainable skylines
Greater Kansas City was chosen as one of the first pilot
communities to implement the Sustainable Skylines program.
This program is a locally led, Environmental Protection
Agency-supported initiative to reduce emissions and support
sustainability in urban environments.
partners
• City of Kansas City, Mo.
• Unified Government of Wyandotte County /
Kansas City, Kan.
• Johnson County, Kan.
• Mid-America Regional Council
• Greater Kansas City Chamber of Commerce
• Missouri Department of Natural Resources
• Kansas Department of Health and Environment
• Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7
• Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Quality and Planning Standards
These partners identified six projects that would:
• Integrate transportation, energy, land-use and
air-quality planning
• Yield measurable air-quality benefits within three years
• Promote collaboration among multiple stakeholders
• Identify and leverage resources among partners
Parking Lots to Parks is one of those six projects.

endnotes
1
Trees, Parking and Green Law: Legal Tools and Strategies for Sustainability.
University of Washington. 2004. http://www.cfr.washington.edu/research.envmind/
Roadside/Parking_Trees_FS15.pdf.
2
Cool Houston! A Plan for Cooling the Region. Houston Advanced Research Center.
2004. http://files.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/CoolHoustonPlan.pdf.
3
Shoup, Donald. The High Cost of Free Parking. 2004.
4
Trees, Parking and Green Law: Strategies for Sustainability. University of Washington.
2004. http://www.naturewithin.info/Roadside/Trees_Parking.pdf.
5
Cooling Summertime Temperatures: Strategies to Reduce Urban Heat Islands.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/
pdf/HIRIbrochure.pdf.
6
Santa Barbara County Air Pollution Control District. 2009. http://www.sbcapcd.org/
sbc/ozonehealth.htm.
7
Regional Hazard Mitigation Plan. MARC. 2010. http://www.marc.org/emergency/
pdfs/2010HMP/Section3RiskAssessment.pdf.
8
Transportation Outlook 2040, MARC. http://www.marc.org/2040.
9
Climate Change Indicators in the United States. Environmental Protection Agency.
2010. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/indicators.html.
10
Patterson, Steve. "Downtown Still Going Strong; Neighborhoods and Inner Suburbs
Need Leadership." Urban Review STL, Nov. 20, 2006. http://www.urbanreviewstl.
com/?p=2849.
11
Reducing Air Pollution through Urban Forestry. E. Gregory McPherson and James R.
Simpson. 1999. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/programs/cufr/products/cufr_73.pdf.

600 Broadway, Suite 200, Kansas City, MO, 64105
www.marc.org | 816-474-4240

Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City

Recomendados

Recomendados

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Mais procurados (20)

Destaque

Destaque (20)

Semelhante a Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City

Semelhante a Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City (20)

Mais de Green Parking Council

Mais de Green Parking Council (20)

Último

Último (20)

Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City