This document provides an overview of a university course on principles of animal nutrition. It begins with background information on the lecturer and course outline. The document then covers key topics in animal nutrition including definitions of nutrition, nutrients, and dietary components. It discusses the six classes of nutrients - water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins - and their functions. Factors affecting nutritional requirements are also reviewed.
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AS 252 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION .pptx
1. AS 252 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL
NUTRITION
BY
FRANK IDAN, PH.D.
LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE, KNUST
EMAIL: frank.idan@knust.edu.gh/frankkidan@gmail.com
MOB: 0243389831
2. BACKGROUND
2
Teaching Philosophy
Every student has the potential to excel when given the
right opportunities and guidance
Students need to stay focus, work hard, and be committed
to their academic work
3. LECTURE OUTLINE
3
What is Nutrition and Nutrient?
Nutritional Requirements
Components of Plants and Animals
Six Classes of Nutrients and Functions of Nutrients
Water, CHO, Protein, Lipids, Vitamins and Minerals
4. THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION
What is Nutrition?
The science of nutrition examines the qualitative and quantitative
requirements of the diet necessary to maintain proper health of
animals
Involves various chemical reactions and physiological processes which
transform food into body tissues and activities
Qualitative Requirements: Essential nutrients
Quantitative Requirements: Balanced diet – correct nutrients, in proper
amounts, that is required by animals to stay healthy
4
5. DEFINITIONS AND TERMS
Nutrients: Any chemical element or compound in the diet that is
required for normal life processes
Components of food capable of being utilised by animals
Presently, more than 100 nutrients are needed in animal diets
Food: An edible material that provides nutrients
Material which, after ingestion by animals, is capable of being digested,
absorbed, and utilised
Animals categorized into Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores
depending on the type of food
Feed: commonly used to designate animal food
5
6. DEFINITIONS AND TERMS
Diets: A mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrients to an animal
Ration: An amount of feed allocated to an animal in a day i.e. how
much feed an animal gets per day
Feed: commonly used to designate animal food
Foodstuff/Feedstuff: Any material made into or used as food for
animals
6
7. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Plants vs Animals: Both plants and animals require Water and Energy
Autotrophic: Type of nutrition in which organisms synthesize their own food from simple
inorganic materials such as H2O, CO2 and mineral salts in the presence of sunlight
Plants and other chlorophyll containing organisms
Process called Photosynthesis which is the opposite of respiration in Animals
6 CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Heterotrophic: Mode of nutrition in which organisms depend on other organisms for
their food to survive
Cannot manufacture own food
Mostly animals, fungi, and other non-photosynthetic organisms
7
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
Sunlight
Chlorophyll
8. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Essential Nutrients for Most Animals:
Water
Energy* = Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
Amino Acids (Nitrogen sources)
Fatty Acids
Minerals = Macro and Micro
Vitamins = Fat and Water soluble
Other Nutrients (Species dependent) – Taurine, Choline, Carnitine etc.
8
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
9. FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRITIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
Gastrointestinal Tracts of Species
Carnivores, Herbivores, and Omnivores
Energy sources
Carnivores/Omnivores – Fat/Protein
Herbivores - Carbohydrates
Age
Level of Productivity
Production, Gestation, and Lactation
Environmental Factors
Temperature, Humidity
9
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
10. COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEED
10
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
What is actually contained in Animal Feed?
1. Moisture (Water)
2. Dry Matter
a. Organic Material: (N-containing compounds (proteins), lipids (fat
soluble), carbohydrates (water soluble), vitamins, nucleic acids, and
organic acids
b. Inorganic Material (Ash): Minerals Macro and micro/trace minerals;
Any mineral can be toxic in excessive amounts
11. COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEED
11
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
Plants and animals contain similar types of chemical substances, can be
grouped into classes according to constitution, properties and function
12. COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Plants – Mostly water and carbohydrates
CHO- Readily available (sugars) vs fibrous components
(crude fibre)
Low in protein and fat
Animals – Mostly fat and protein
60% water, 20% fat, 16% protein, and 4% minerals
Very low in carbohydrates (< 1%)
12
13. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
AND ANIMALS BODY
Physical and chemical processes occurring in the protoplasm
represents the chemical composition of plant and animal
Animal body derives all nutrients for its physiological functions from
the digestion of plant and plant products as well as animal products
such as fish meal and milk
Knowledge of the chemical composition of farm animals is required to
understand their nutrient requirement while that of plants is essential
because they furnish most of the food for livestock
13
14. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
AND ANIMALS BODY CONT’D
Plants and animals' tissues are composed of similar type of chemical
substances, but their relative amounts vary
Plants are analyzed by proximate method of analysis whereas, animal
body was first analyzed by Lawes and Gilbert (1858)by slaughter
experiments
Plants and their by-products show much larger differences in the
chemical composition than the animals
Proportions of various body organs of animals change during the
period before and immediately after birth and during post-natal
growth
14
15. COMPARISON OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
BODY COMPOSITION
Parameters Animal Plant
Major constituent Water Water
Major Organic Constituent Protein Carbohydrate (CHO)
Structural Component Protein and Mineral CHO (Cellulose, Lignin
Hemicellulose etc.)
Reserve Material Fat (Glycogen) CHO (Starch)
CHO Amount Less More
Minerals Amount Generally constant to species Wide variation
Variations in Composition Less Wide
15
16. Table 1: Chemical Composition of The Pig’s
Body During Early Post-natal Life
16
Post Natal Period (days)
0 7 14 28
Empty BW (g) 1450 3044 5248 9651
Lipid (%) 1.2 10.1 15.1 18.3
Protein (%) 12.0 14.4 14.4 14.6
Ash (%) 4.2 3.1 3.0 3.3
Water (%) 82.6 72.5 67.3 63.6
17. SIX CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS
Water
Carbohydrates (CHO)
Lipids (Fats & Oils)
Proteins (CHON)
Minerals
Vitamins
17
18. FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS
1. Source of Energy: CHO, lipids and proteins
Energy needed for heat production, fat deposition, and work
2. Maintenance: All nutrients
Nutrients are needed for breathing, movement, digestion, maintaining body
weight, keeping warm etc.
3. Growth: Proteins
Most rapid at early stages of life
Increase in height, weight, building of tissues
4. Reproduction: All nutrients
Development of maternal tissues and foetus
18
19. FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS CONT’D
5. Structural: Proteins, minerals, fats, and water
Maintenance of structural Integrity
Building/maintaining body structure, cushioning of body organs e.g., Heart
6. Regulatory: Vitamins, minerals, protein, and water
Transport of nutrients, stimulating or catalyzing activities of hormones or
enzymes needed for particular metabolic processes
7. Production: All essential nutrients
Meat, Milk, and Egg production
19
20. FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
1. Species
2. Breeds
3. Weight
4. Body condition
5. Growth
6. Stage of gestation
7. Level of milk production
8. Age
9. Sex
10. Work
11. Environment
20
21. WATER
Composed of H and O in the ratio
of 2:1 (H2O)
Largest single constituent of the
body mass of animals and may
differ due to age and nutritional
status
90% of embryos
70% of new-born animals
50% to 65% of body mass of
adult
Water is the most essential dietary
nutrient (indispensable)
Excessive loss of H2O is fatal
10% causes serious disorders
20% results in death
21
22. SOURCES OF WATER
(a) Drinking water: Major source of H2O and consumed from outside sources
Domestic farm animals all require copious amounts of water when producing at a high level
particularly when they are heat-stressed
(b) Water contained in feed: Moisture content of feed supply water to animals
H2O content of feedstuffs consumed by animals is highly variable
E.g., commercial diets for poultry contain approximately 10% moisture
In forage, may range from 5 – 7% (mature plants and hays) to ≥90% (lush young vegetation)
(c) Metabolic Water (water of oxidation): Obtained from oxidation of organic components or
metabolism of nutrients in body cells
Catabolism of I kg of fat, carbohydrate or protein produces 1190g, 560g or 450g of water
22
23. FUNCTIONS OF WATER
Absorption and transportation of nutrients to other parts of the body
Temperature regulation
Growth, digestion, reproduction, lactation, and lubrication of joints
Gives body shape or form to cells
Essential part of foodstuff. Makes food soft and palatable
Involved in most biochemical & physiological reactions
Essential constituents of almost all the juices or secretions of body
Excretion of waste products from the body in the form of urine, faeces
Helps in homeostasis (acid-base balance, pH, osmotic pressure, electrolyte
concentration)
23
24. LOSS OF WATER
Urine:
Acts as solvent for products excreted from the kidney
Increases when excess water is consumed or diuretics (alcohol & caffeine)
Faeces:
May exceed urinary water in ruminants such as cattle
Consumption of fibrous feeds results in excretion of higher amount of fecal water
Evaporation from Body Surface and Respiratory Tracts:
Water loss through vaporization from the lungs and dissipation through the skin and
sweat from the sweat glands in the skin during warm or hot weather
Accounts for relatively large amount of total water loss
24
25. WATER REQUIREMENTS
Difficult to state/predict and depends on several factors
Environmental Factors:
↑ Env’tal temp and humidity ↑ H2O requirement
Accessibility: greater the distance between water and feed the less water the animal will
consume
Consumption of fibrous feeds results in excretion of higher amount of fecal water
Dietary Factors:
DM intake is highly correlated with water intake at moderate temp
Water content of feed affects total water intake
Protein level of diet: High levels of protein increases water intake
Increases in fat and salt intake increase water requirement
25
26. WATER REQUIREMENTS CONT’D
Animal Factors:
Age, stage of growth, level of production, activity, health condition and pregnancy has
direct effect on water requirement
Frequency and periodicity of watering
Social or behavioural interaction of animals with the environment
Water Metabolism:
Includes absorption, homeostasis and excretion
Absorption: occurs in all parts of the GIT mainly large intestine
Homeostasis: maintenance of uniformity and stability of water, balance affected by water intake
and water losses
Excretion: H2O is excreted from body by evaporation through skin, perspiration through expired
air, and through faeces, urine, milk, tear, and saliva
26
27. WATER DEPRIVATION/ RESTRICTION
Moderate Restriction:
Reduced feed intake and
productivity
Reduced urine and fecal water
excretion
Severe Restriction:
Rapid weight loss
Dehydration accompanied by
increased renal excretion of N and
electrolytes
Increased respiration rate
Increased blood concentration
Decreased blood pressure and
cardiac output
Discomfort and incoordination in
movement
Nausea
Prostration and eventually death if
deprivation continues
27
28. ENERGY
Energy is not a nutrient but x’tics
of some feeds
Energy is stored in Carbohydrate,
Fats and Proteins
Functions
Growth
Production (milk, meat, eggs)
Maintenance of normal body temp
Carrying out of vital physical
activities
Symptoms of Energy Deficiency
Increased feed intake
Weight loss
Wasting of tissues
Death in extreme cases
28
29. CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)
Defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketones or acids and their derivatives or
compounds that yield these derivatives on hydrolysis
Neutral chemical compounds containing the element C, H and O with the
empirical formula (CH2O)n, where n ≥ 3 e.g. Glucose (C6H12O6)
Basic units of CHO is Monosaccharides
CHO serves as both structural and reserve material in the plant
The animal body contains < 1% CHO, which are present in blood, muscles and
liver
The carbohydrate present in animal body is also known as glycogen
29
30. CARBOHYDRATES CONT’D
Based on digestibility and solubility, CHO can be divided into two groups
(a) Soluble Carbohydrates: Called nitrogen free extract (NFE) and
include simple sugar and starch, which are easily digestible in the
body
(b) Insoluble Carbohydrates: Include hard fibrous substance like crude
fibre, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
Less digestible by non-ruminants and easily digested in ruminants by
rumen microflora and microfauna
30
31. FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Serves as a major source of energy in animal body
2. Involved in temp production, temp control and proper functioning of
different parts of the animal body
3. Essential components of milk as lactose
4. Stored as glycogen, excess of CHO in the diet is converted into fat and
stored in the fat depot. These are reserve energy materials of the body
in liver and muscles of animals and starch in plants
5. Aids in the absorption of Ca and P in younger animals
31
32. FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
6. Help in the secretion of digestive juices in GIT
7. Provide suitable environment for the growth of rumen bacteria and
protozoa
8. Help in peristaltic movement of food
9. Maintain the glucose level of plasma
10. Component of several important bio-chemical compounds such as
nucleic acids, coenzymes and blood group substance
11. Play a key role in the metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids
32
33. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
CHO is divided into 2 major groups:
1. SUGARS: Generally restricted to those
carbohydrates, which contain < 10
monosaccharide residues
Subdivided into 2 groups: Mono & Oligo
a) Monosaccharides: Simplest sugars and
cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units.
Further divided based on the number of C
atoms. E.g. Triose (C3H603), Tetroses
(C4H604), Pentoses (C5H10O5) and Hexoses
(C6H1206)
33
34. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
b) Oligosaccharides: Includes all
sugars except monosaccharides
Monosaccharides linked together with
elimination of H2O at each linkage and
Produces di, tri, tetra or polysaccharide
containing 2,3,4 and large number of
simple sugar molecules, respectively
34
35. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
2. NON-SUGARS: Tasteless, insoluble, amorphous compounds with a
high molecular weight
Divided into 2 sub-groups: Polysaccharides and Complex CHO
I. Polysaccharides: Polymers of monosaccharide units. Grouped into
a) Homopolysaccharides: Single type of monosaccharide unit upon hydrolysis
Classified according to the kind of sugar which produces the hydrolysis
E.g. Glucans are condensation polymer of glucose, fructans of fructose and
xylans of xylose
35
36. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
b) Heteropolysaccharides: Mixed polysaccharides, which on
hydrolysis yield mixtures of monosaccharides and derived
products
II. Complex CHO: ill-defined group of compounds that contain CHO in
combination with non-carbohydrate molecules. They include the
glycolipids and glycoproteins
36
38. LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of substances found in plants and animals, which are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform
and benzene
They act as electron carriers, as substrate carriers in enzymic reactions, as
components of biological membranes, and as sources and stores of energy
Produces 2.25 times the energy of CHO or proteins
Most are triglyceride (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)
Fats are lipids solid at room temp whilst Oils are liquid at room temp
38
39. FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Main function of fats is to supply energy to the animal body.
One gram of fat after complete oxidation produces 9.3 Kcal
heat. Fats are reserved source of energy to the animal body
2. After hydrolysis, fats are converted into fatty acid and glycerol,
thus providing essential fatty acids (linoleic, arachidonic and
linolenic) to the body
3. Essential component of milk
4. Helps in the absorption of Ca and P in the body
39
40. FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
5. Aid in the absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E, and K) in the
blood
6. Essential constituent of the body protoplasm.
7. Helps in temp regulation & insulation for vital organs, protecting them
from shock.
8. Required for the lubrication of joints
9. Fats are important nutrient of nervous metabolism
10. Delays the sensation' of hunger, as it requires a longer period of time
to pass through the stomach than carbohydrate and protein
40
41. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Categorized into 3 main
groups
1. Simple Lipids:
Are esters of fatty acids with
various alcohols, particularly
glycerol and cholesterol
Fats, oils, and waxes are simple
lipids
Fats and oil are esters of fatty
acids with glycerol and waxes are
esters of fatty acids with an
alcohol
2. Compound lipids:
Are esters of glycerol which contain two
fatty acid residues plus another
chemical group such as choline (linked
through phosphoric acid)
They include phospholipids,
glycolipids, and lipoproteins
41
42. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
2. Compound lipids:
They include phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoproteins
Phospholipids are fats containing phosphoric acid and N
Glycolipids are fats containing CHO and often N
Lipoproteins are lipids bound to proteins in blood and other tissues
3. Derived lipids:
Substances derived from groups simple and compound lipids by
hydrolysis, - i.e., fatty acids, glycerol, and other alcohols such as
cholesterol, ergosterol and sitosterol
42
44. STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS
44
Fats and Oils have the same general
structure and chemical properties but
different physical characteristics
The melting point of the oils is such that
at ordinary room temperature they are
liquid while fats are solid
Chemically fats are ester of fatty acid
with glycerol
In nature 3 fatty acid molecules combine
with one glycerol molecule with release
of three molecules of water
45. FATTY ACIDS (FA)
45
FA are the building blocks of fat
Consist of chains of C atoms ranging from 2 to 30 or more C’s in length
with a carboxyl group on the end of each chain
The general structure is RCOOH, where R is a chain of variable length
The chain may be saturated (containing only single bonds) or unsaturated
(containing one or more double bonds)
46. FATTY ACIDS (S FA)
46
Common Name No. of C Atoms Systemic Name
Acetic 2 Ethanoic
Propionic 3 Propionic
Butyric 4 Butanoic
Caproic 6 Hexanoic
Caprylic 8 Octanoic
Capric 10 Decanoic
Lauric 12 Dodecanoic
Myristic 14 Tetra decanoic
Palmitic 16 Hexa decanoic
Stearic 18 Octa decanoic
47. FATTY ACIDS
47
Types of Fatty Acids
Essential FA: They FA that cannot be synthesized by the body of
animals or in sufficient amount to carry out physiological activities
Linoleic, Linolenic, and Arachidonic acids
Non-essential FA: Those that can be synthesized by the body and
thus not a dietary requirement
Most fatty acids except the 3
49. GLYCEROL
49
The alcohol component of all tri-glycerides common in animal and
plant tissues and is a component of lecithin, cephalin and
sphingomyelin
Mono-, di-, and triglycerides
These are esters of glycerol and fatty acids: - The fatty acid
composition of triglycerides is variable.
The chain length and degree of unsaturation of the individual fatty
acids making up the triglyceride determines its physical and chemical
properties
50. GLYCEROL
50
For example, simple triglycerides of saturated fatty acids
containing 10 or more Cs are solid at room temperature,
whiles those with less than 10 Cs usually are liquid.
Triglycerides containing only long-chain saturated fatty acids
are solids, whereas those containing more of unsaturated fatty
acids are liquids.
51. PROTEINS (CHON)
Proteins are complex organic nitrogenous compounds made up of
amino acids (basic units)
All proteins contain C, H, O, N and generally S, many contain P
Element such as I, Fe, Cu and Zn are also occasionally present
Each species has its own specific proteins, and a single
organism has many different proteins in its cells and tissues
51
52. PROTEINS (CHON)
Most proteins contain about 16% N, which means that the weight of
protein N multiplied by 6.25 (100/16 = 6.25) equal the weight of protein
E.g. Suppose a feed sample to be analyzed yields 1.0 gram of N by
Kjeldahl process, then the weight of protein is calculated as 1.0 x 6.25 =
6.25 g
Milk N is multiplied by 6.38 because milk protein contains 15.87 percent
N
52
53. AMINO ACIDS (AA)
AAs are produced when proteins are hydrolyzed by enzymes, acids or
alkalis
Although over 200 AA have been isolated from biological materials,
only 20 are commonly found as components of proteins
Structure of Amino Acids
Amino acids have a basic amino group (–NH2) and an acidic carboxyl
group (–COOH)
AA are amphoteric (both acidic and basic properties) in nature and
exist as dipolar ions in aqueous solution
53
54. AMINO ACIDS (AA)
Most AAs occurring naturally in proteins are of the α type,
having the amino group attached to the C atom adjacent to
the carboxyl group
54
55. CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
AAs can be classified into 3 groups, namely, the aliphatic, aromatic and
heterocyclic amino acids
1. Aliphatic: AA containing an aliphatic side chain functional group. They
are nonpolar and hydrophobic. Hydrophobicity ↑ with ↑sing # of C
atoms
Alanine, Glycine (simplest AA), Isoleucine, Leucine, Serine,
Threonine, Valine, Aspartic Acid, Lysine, Glutamic Acid
Cystine, Methionine, Cysteine (S containing AA)
55
56. CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
2. Aromatic: AA with little or no charge. Such AA have stable aromatic
ring that does not easily react with other compounds or elements
Phenylalanine, and Tyrosine,
3. Heterocyclic: AA forming a ring made up of C atoms and at least one
atom other than C
Histidine, Proline, Hydroxyproline, Tryptophan
56
57. ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO
ACIDS
1. Essential AA: AA that can not be synthesized by the
body and must be included in the diet
(Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine), (Tryptophan, Isoleucine,
Methionine), (Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, Lysine)
PVT TIM HALL
57
58. ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO
ACIDS
2. Nonessential AA: AA that can be synthesized in the body,
hence not a dietary requirement
Alanine, Aspartic acid, Cystine, Glutamic acid, Glycine,
Hydroxyproline, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, & Glutamine
A limiting amino acid is one present in the lowest amount
relative to the requirement
Lysine (Swine), methionine (Poultry) & tryptophane are likely to be
limiting in diets for monogastric animals
58
59. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Phenylalanine
Valine
Threonine
Methionine
Arginine
Tryptophane
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
PVT MAT HILL
PVT TIM HALL
59
61. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are classified based on their
shape, chemical composition, solubilities
in water, salt, acids, bases and alcohol
1. Globular Proteins: Soluble in water or in
dilute acids or bases or in alcohol. Includes
all the enzymes, antigens and hormones
Albumins, Globulins, Glutelins, Prolamines,
Histones, Protamines
2. Fibrous Proteins: Insoluble in water and
resistant to digestive enzymes of animals
Collagens – the major protein of skeletal
connective tissues
Elastins – the proteins of the elastic tissues such
as tendons and arteries
Keratins – proteins of feathers, hairs, claws,
beak, hoofs and horns
3. Conjugated Proteins: composed of simple
protein combined with some non-protein
substances as prosthetic group
Nucleoproteins, Muccoids, Glycoproteins,
Lipoproteins, Chymoproteins, Metalloproteins
61
62. FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
1. Proteins form muscles and tissues of the body;
hence it is essential for the growth and
development of the body.
2. Help in maintaining the loss of body tissues and
muscles.
3. Help in the formation of enzymes, hormones,
antigen, antibody, digestive juices of the body
and regulate body osmotic pressure and acid-
base balance.
4. Help in the repair of body cells as well as for the
production of new cells.
5. Also supply energy to the body in the absence
of CHO and Lipids
6. Essential for the formation of egg, milk protein,
wool and hairs of the animals.
7. Provide the basic cellular matrix within which the
bone mineral matter is deposited.
8. Under condition of non-digestion and no-
chances for denaturation, the protein
accumulates inside the cells and produce toxicity.
i.e. venoms of snakes and insects are infected by
biting into the blood.
9. Endorphins (peptide) are found in brain and are
involved in the suppression of pain.
62
63. SIGNS OF PROTEIN DEFICIENCY
1. Anorexia
2. Reduced growth rate
3. Reduced or negative N balance
4. Reduced efficiency of feed utilisation
5. Reduced serum protein concentration
6. Anaemia
7. Fat accumulation in the liver
8. Oedema (in severe case)
9. Reduced birth weight of young
10. Reduced milk production
11. Reduced egg production in poultry
12. Reduced synthesis of certain enzymes
and hormones
13. In severe protein or amino acid
deficiency, growth is arrested
completely
63
64. Signs of Excessive Intake of Protein
1. Above certain protein intake, there
is a linear depression in weight gain
with increasing protein.
2. Feed intake decreases
3. Hair becomes dull and coarse
4. High protein diet reduces activity of
several adipose tissue enzymes
associated with fatty acid synthesis
in pigs.
5. Ammonia toxicity is a practical
problem in ruminants fed urea as a
NPN source. Toxic symptoms in
ruminants include: uneasiness,
laboured breathing, excessive
salivation, muscle and skin tremors,
incoordination, tetany and death
within 2h of onset of symptoms.
64
65. MINERALS
Composed of single solid substance of
uniform composition that cannot be
physically separated into simpler chemical
compounds
About 40 mineral elements occur in
measurable amount in nature in plants and
animals tissues
At least 21 of these have been shown to be
required by animals
Minerals are generally classified into two
categories
1. Macro (Major) Elements : Minerals required
in relatively large amount by the body for
normal growth and development
Mostly used in the synthesis of structural
tissues
2. Micro (Minor or Trace) Elements:
Minerals required in relatively small
amount for the physiological processes
of the body
Usually function as activators or as a
component of enzyme system
65
67. GENERAL FUNCTION OF MINERALS
As a constituent of skeletal structure
In regulating acid-base equilibrium
They are helpful in maintaining the colloidal state of body matter and
regulating some of the physical properties of colloidal systems like
viscosity, diffusion and osmotic pressure
They act as a component or an activator of enzymes and or other
biological systems
67
69. VITAMINS
Vitamins are the substances distinct from major components of food required in
minute quantities and whose absence causes specific deficiency disease
Organic substances required by animals in very small amounts for regulating
various body processes toward normal health, growth, production and reproduction
Cannot be synthesised by the animal and therefore must be obtained from the diet
Exception: vitamin D may be synthesised on the surface of the skin by ultra-violet
irradiation, and nicotinic acid is synthesised to some extent from tryptophan
69
70. CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
Vitamins are grouped into 2 based upon
their solubilities in either fats and fat
solvents or in water
1. Fat Soluble vitamins: Vitamins that
dissolve in fat
Found in in feedstuffs in association with
the lipids.
These vitamins are absorbed along with
the dietary fats by mechanisms similar to
those involved in fat absorption
They are stored in appreciable quantities in
the animal body and are not excreted in
the urine
2. Water-Soluble: Vitamins that readily
dissolves in water
Except for B12, are not stored but excesses
are rapidly excreted in the urine
A constant dietary supply of the water-
soluble vitamins is needed to avoid
deficiencies
70
71. FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Fat-soluble vitamins include Vit A, D, E, K
1. A - maintenance of epithelial tissue
2. D - calcium & phosphorous metabolism
3. E - antioxidant – (selenium)
4. K - blood clotting
71
74. GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS
1. Vitamins are essential for the good health and play important role in the
body growth
2. Provide resistance against diseases and increases the productivity power of
animals.
3. Essential constituents of certain enzyme systems, regulate body metabolism
and clotting of blood.
4. Required during pregnancy for the development of foetus.
5. Vitamin ‘A' is responsible for the proper functioning of vision and Vitamin C
keeps the gums in healthy state
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