Physical and Cognitive Development of Adolescence

Physical and Cognitive Development in
ADOLESCENCE
FRESNEDI V. NATIVIDAD

Puberty - the process that leads to sexual maturity
, or fertility- the ability to reproduce .
Early adolescence ( approximately ages 10 or 11 to 14 )
, the transition out of childhood , offers opportunities for
growth , not only in physical dimensions , but also in
cognitive and social competence , autonomy , self – esteem
, and intimacy . This period also caries risks. Some young
people have trouble handling so many changes at once
and may need help in overcoming dangers along the
ADOLESCENCE

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
PUBERTY : The End of
Childhood
Biological changes of puberty , which
signal the end of childhood:
rapid growth in height and
weight
changes in body
proportions
and form
Attainment of sexual
maturity

How Puberty
Begins
Hormonal
Changes
Begins with a sharp increase in
the production of sex - related
hormones.
Two
Stages
1. The maturing of the adrenal glands
Sometime between the ages between 6 and 9 , the adrenal glands
located above the kidneys , secrete gradually increasing levels of
androgens , principally dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA ) DHEA plays a
part in the growth of pubic , axillary ( armpit ) , and facial hair , as
well as in faster body growth, oilier skin , and the development of body
odor. By age 10 , levels of DHEA are 10 times what they were between
ages 1 and 4. In several studies , adolescent boys and girls – whether
homosexual or heterosexual - recalled their earliest sexual attraction as
having take place at that age ( McClintock & Herdt ,1996 )

HORMONAL CHANGE IN
PUBERTY
2.the maturing of the sex organs and the appearance of more
obvious pubertal changes
This happen two to four years later . This triggers a second
burst
of DHEA production .
BOYS :
The testes increase the manufacture of androgens ,
particularly testosterone , which stimulate growth of
male genitals , muscle mass, and body hair.
GIRLS:
Ovaries step up their output of estrogen , which
stimulates growth of female genitals and
development
of breasts.

BOYS and GIRLS have both types of
hormones , but girls have higher levels of
estrogen , and boys have higher levels of
androgens. In girls , testosterone influences
growth of the clitoris as well as of the
bones and of pubic and axillary hair.
HORMONAL CHANGE IN
PUBERTY
Some research attributes the heightened
emotionality and moodiness of early
adolescence to those hormonal
developments . However , other influences
, such as sex , age , temperament , and
the timing of puberty , may moderate or
even override hormonal ones.

Primary Sex
Characteristics
PUBERTY
Are biological changes that directly involve the
organs necessary for reproduction .
FEMALE ORGANS
- ovaries ,
-fallopian
tubes
-uterus
-vagina
MALE ORGANS
-testes
-scrotum
-seminal vesicles
-prostate gland

PUBERTY
Secondary Sex
Characteristics
Are physiological signs of sexual
maturation that do not directly involve the
sex organs .
Example : Male – broad shoulder
Female – breast
Other changes: changes in
voice ,
skin texture
, muscular
development ,
growth of
pubic ,
facial, axillary
and
body hair

Even though the male adolescent’s growth
rate varies from child to child, a sequential
pattern has been identified. The typical
sequence of events occurs as follows:
1.The testes and scrotum begin to increase in
size.
2.Pubic hair begins to appear.
3.The penis begins to enlarge, and the
adolescent
growth spurt begins.
Sexual Maturation In the Male
Adolescent
4.The larynx starts to grow and the voice deepens.
5.Hair growth begins on the upper lip.
6.Nocturnal emissions (ejaculation of semen during sleep) may occur
as
sperm production increases.
7.Pubic hair becomes pigmented, and growth spurt reaches its peak.
8.The prostrate gland enlarges.
9.Hair growth begins in the axillas (armpits).
10.Sperm production becomes sufficient for fertility, and the growth
rate

Even though the female adolescent’s growth rate varies
from child to child, a sequential pattern has been
identified. The typical sequence of events occur as
follows:
1.The adolescent growth spurt begins.
2.Non-pigmented pubic hair (downy) appears.
3.The budding stage of development (breast elevation)
and
the rounding of the hip begins, accompanied by the
beginning of downy axillary hair .
Sexual Maturation of the
Female Adolescent
4.The uterus, vagina, labia and clitoris increase in size.
5.Pubic hair growth becomes rapid and is slightly pigmented.
6.Breast development advances, nipple pigmentation begins, and the areola
increases in size. Axillary hair becomes slightly pigmented.
7.Growth spurt reaches its peak, and then declines.
8.Menarche occurs
9.Public hair development is completed, followed by mature breast
development and
completion of axillary hair development.
10.“Adolescent sterility” ends, and the girl becomes capable of conception.

Adolescent growth spurt - Rapid increase in height and weight
that
precedes sexual maturity
Signs of Sexual
Maturity
BOYS : Sperm Production - The first ejaculation occurs at an
average age of 13. A boy may wake up to find a wet spot or a
hardened , dried spot on the sheets – the result of a nocturnal
emission , an involuntary ejaculation of semen ( commonly
referred to as a wet dream )
GIRLS: Menstruation .- A monthly shedding of tissue from the
lining of the womb . Its normal timing can vary from ages 10
to 16 ½
ADOLESCENCE

THE ADOLESCENT
BRAIN
The adolescent brain is a work in progress
. Dramatic changes in brain structures involve
in emotions , judgment , organization of
behavior , and self control take place
between puberty and young adulthood and
may help explain teenagers penchant for
emotional outburst and risky or even violent
behavior.
Growth Spurt in Adolescent - Takes place
chiefly in the frontal lobes which handle
planning , reasoning , judgment , emotional
regulation , and impulse control.

THE ADOLESCENT
BRAIN
Adolescents process information about emotions
differently than adults do. Early adolescents ( age
11 to 13 ) tended to use the amygdala , a small ,
almond – shaped structure deep in the temporal
lobe that is heavily involved in emotional and
instinctual reactions. Older adolescents , like adults ,
were more likely to use the frontal lobe , which
permits more accurate , reasoned judgments .
In early adolescence immature brain may permit
feelings to override reason –a possible reason for
some young people’s unwise choices such as
abuse of alcohol or drugs , and sexual risk
taking.

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL
HEALTH
Health Concerns of American
Adolescents
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
One third of US high school
students do not engage in
recommended amounts of
physical activity , and the
proportion of young people who
are inactive increases throughout
the high school years .
Adolescents exercise less often
than in past years and less
frequently than adolescents in
most other industrialized

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL
HEALTH
Health Concerns of American
Adolescents
1. SLEEP
NEEDS
Many adolescents do not get enough
sleep . Average nighttime sleep
declines from more than ten hours at
age 9 to slightly less than eight hours
at age 16 . Adolescents tend to be
sleepy during the daytime even when
they sleep a full nine hors , suggesting
that they need as much as or more
sleep than before .
A pattern of late bedtimes and oversleeping in the mornings can
contribute to insomia , a problem that often begins in late childhood or
adolescence . Daytime naps worsen the problem. In a longitudinal study
of middle school students , six-graders who slept less than their peers
were more likely to show depressive symptoms and to have low self
esteem.

1. SLEEP
NEEDS
HEALTH CONCERNS OF AMERICAN
ADOLESCENTS
Adolescents undergo a shift in the brain’s natural sleep cycle , or
circadian timing system. The timing of secretion of the hormone
melatonin is a gauge when the brain is ready to sleep
2. NUTRITION and EATING
DISORDER
US adolescents have less healthy diets than those in most other
western industrialized countries . They eat fewer fruits and vegetables ,
and more sweets , chocolate, softdrinks , fat , and other junk foods which
are high in cholesterol , fat , and calories and low in nutrients .
Obesity /
Overweight
Overweight or obese teenagers tend to be in poorer health than
their peers and are more likely to have functional limitations , such as
difficulty attending school , performing household chores , or engaging
in strenuous activity.

ADOLESCENTS
Body Image and Eating
Disorders
Because of the normal increase in girl’s body fat during puberty , many
girls especially if they are advanced in pubertal development , become
unhappy about their appearance , reflecting in the cultural emphasis in
female physical attributes .
Excessive concerns with weight control and body image may be signs of
anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa , both of which involve abnormal
patterns of food intake .
Anorexia Nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by self starvation
Bulimia
Nervosa
Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge
quantities of food and purges the body of laxatives ,
induced vomiting , fasting , or excessive exercise

ADOLESCENTS
USE AND ABUSE OF
DRUGS
Although a great majority of adolescents do not abuse drugs , a significant
minority do. Substance abuse is a repeated harmful use of a substance ,
usually alcohol or other drugs. Abuse can lead to substance dependence (
addiction ) , which maybe physiological , psychological , or both is likely to
continue into adulthood. Addictive drugs are especially dangerous for
adolescents because they stimulate parts of the brain that are changing in
adolescence
Alcohol , Marijuana and
Tobacco
Adolescents are more vulnerable than adults to both immediate and
long- term negative effects of alcohol on learning memory.
Contrary to common belief , marijuana use may be addictive and tends to
lead to hard drug use .
Adolescents who begin smoking by age 11 are twice as likely as other
young people to engage in risky behaviors . Such as carrying knives or
guns to school ; using inhalants , marijuana or cocaine , and making suicide
plans

HEALTH CONCERNS OF
AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS
DEPRESSIO
N
The prevalence of depression increases during adolescence ,
occurring in an estimated 4 to 8 percent of young people .
Depression in young people does not necessarily appear as
sadness but as irritability , boredom , or inability to experience
pleasure . It needs to be taken seriously because of the danger
of suicide .
Adolescent girls , especially early maturing girls and
adult women are more subject to depression than males .
This gender difference maybe related to biological changes
connected with or to the ways girls are socialized . Besides
female gender , risk factors for depression include anxiety ,
fear of social contact , stressful life events, chronic illnesses
such as diabetes or epilepsy , parent –child conflict , abuse
or neglect , and having a parent with a history of depression.

ADOLESCENTS
DEATH IN ADOLESCENCE
The frequency of car crashes , handgun
deaths , and suicide in this age group
reflects a violent culture as well as
adolescents’ inexperience and immaturity ,
which often leads to risk taking and
carelessness
 Deaths from vehicles accidents
and firearms .
Suicide
Leading Cause of Deaths in
US

HEALTH CONCERNS OF
FILIPINO ADOLESCENTS
HEALTH CONCERNS IN
RELATION TO CHILD
LABOR
 DRUG ABUSE
 EARLY PREGNANCY
SUICIDE ( DEPRESSION )

HEALTH CONCERNS OF FILIPINO
ADOLESCENTS
Numerous incidents have been
reported in local and international
television and social media about drug
users and dealers who are caught in the
acts, especially in those squatters area
or what they call “drug dens”. Not only
those people who live in this populated
area are being reported to the
authorities but believe it or not powerful
persons like government officials also
indulge their selves in using prohibited
drugs.
“Drug abuse and addiction are major
burdens to society; however, staggering as
these numbers are, they provide limited
perspective of the devastating
consequences of this disease”
1. DRUG
ABUSE

ADOLESCENTS
Most of the drug users in the Philippines are young people. Illegal
drugs that are present include Methamphetamine or the local
name is shabu, marijuana, inhalants (rugby), solvent,
cocaine, diazepam, ecstasy and nubain. While there are no
accurate statistics available, it is estimated by Dangerous Drugs Board
as many as 3.7 millions in the Philippines are dealing with drug
addiction just a year 2016, 65 percent of it -is young people.

So what are the reasons why this young people in the
Philippines are attracted to use these illegal drugs?
ADOLESCENTS
1. ENJOYMENT
Despite all the concerns about illegal drug use and the attendant lifestyle
by young people, it is probably still the case that the lives of most young
people are centered on school, home and employment and that most drug
use is restricted to the use of tobacco and alcohol. They may adopt the
behavior, fashion and dialect of a particular subculture including the
occasional or experimental use of illegal drugs without necessarily
adopting the lifestyle. Even so, the evidence of drug use within youth
culture suggests that the experience of substances is often pleasure rather
than negative and damaging. People who use drugs may like the feelings
of excitement, confidence and connection with others which some drugs
can elicit. Drugs may also help relieve feelings of boredom. So possibly the
main reason why young people take drugs is that they enjoy them.

HEALTH CONCERNS OF FILIPINO ADOLESCENTS
2.ENVIRONMENT
Many young people live in communities which suffer from poverty, with high
unemployment, low quality housing and where the surrounding infrastructure of local
services is fractured and poorly resourced. In such communities drug supply and use
often thrive as an alternative economy often controlled by powerful criminal groups.
As well as use that might be associated with the stress and boredom of living in such
communities, young people with poor job prospects recognize the financial
advantages and the status achievable through the business of small scale supply of
drugs.
3.CURIOSITY.
Most young people are naturally curious and want to experiment with different
experiences. For some, drugs are a good conversation point, they are interesting to
talk about and fascinate everyone. Teenagers and adults can succumb to peer
pressure. The pressure of being around others who are abusing drugs or alcohol can
make anyone follow suit and do things that they never thought they would.

ADOLESCENTS
4. PERSONAL PROBLEMS
Some young people will use drugs specifically to ease trauma and pain of
bad relationships ,and the physical and emotional abuse arising from
unhappy homes . Such young people will often come to the attention of the
school. If these problems can be addressed, and if drugs are involved they
can become less of a problem.
So how can we prevent this widespread use of drugs and drug addiction?
If we have the opportunity to renew their lives, we can help them by
conducting seminars about drug addiction.
We can encourage them to join some recreational activities to reverse
their attention on drugs.
We can promote the importance of Education and FAMILY.
Lastly, encourage them to practice the healthier living habits.

ADOLESCENTS
One in Ten Young Filipino Women Age
15 to 19 Is Already A Mother or Pregnant
With First Child
(Final Results from the 2013 National
Demographic and Health Survey)
Reference Number:
2014-057
Release Date:
Thursday, August 28, 2014
2. EARLY
PREGNANCY

ADOLESCENTS
2. EARLY
PREGNANCY
One in ten young Filipino women age 15-19 has begun
childbearing:
8 percent are already mothers and another 2 percent are
pregnant with their first child according to the results of the 2013
National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS).
Among young adult women age 20 to 24, 43 percent are already
mothers and 4 percent are pregnant with their first child .

Early pregnancy and motherhood varies by education, wealth quintile, and
region.
It is more common among young adult women age 15 to 24 with less
education than among those with higher education (44 percent for women
with elementary education versus 21 percent for women with college
education).
Early childbearing is also more common in Caraga (38 percent) and
Cagayan Valley (37 percent) than other regions.
The proportion of young adult women who have begun childbearing is
higher among those classified as belonging to poor households than those in
wealthier households (37 percent for young women in the lowest wealth
quintile versus 13 percent for women in the highest wealth quintile).
2. EARLY PREGNANCY
ADOLESCENTS

The survey also reveals that one in five (19 percent) young adult
Filipino women age 18 to 24 years had initiated their sexual activity
before age 18.
Some of them would have had their first intimate sexual act before
marriage. The survey reveals that 15 percent of young adult women
age 20 to 24 had their first marriage or began living with their first
spouse or partner by age 18.
This proportion is lower than the proportion (19 percent) earlier
cited regarding initiation by young women of an intimate sexual
activity.
Age at first marriage hardly changed over the years. A slightly higher
proportion (17 percent) of older cohort of women (age group 40-49)
had their first marriage at age 18 .
2. EARLY PREGNANCY
ADOLESCENTS

Initiation of sexual activity before age 18 is more common among young adult
women with less education and those in poorer households.
Over 40 percent of young adult women with some elementary education,
compared with only 7 percent of those with college education, reported
having their first intimate sexual act at age 18 .
Similarly, 36 percent of young adult women in the lowest wealth quintile,
compared with only 10 percent of those in the highest wealth quintile, had
their first intimate sexual act before age 18.
Across regions, the proportion ranges from 11 percent in Cordillera
Administrative Region to 27 percent in Davao.
The proportion of young adult women reporting first intimate sexual act
before age 18 is 22 percent for rural areas and 17 percent for urban areas.
Among young women age 15 to 24, 2 percent reported initiating their sexual
activity before turning 15.
(Sgd) ROMEO S. RECIDE
(Interim Deputy National Statistician) Officer-in-Charge)
2. EARLY
PREGNANCY

3. SUICIDE (
DEPRESSION )
ADOLESCENTS
SPECIAL REPORT: Suicide
and the Pinoy youth
Published July 17, 2015 8:38pm
By CARMELA G. LAPEÑA
In countries like the Philippines where mental health
is rarely discussed, it usually takes a high profile case
before people begin talking about suicide and
depression.
There are only a few studies on suicide, but those
that exist all show the need for better data, and
more importantly, a national prevention program.

ADOLESCENTS
3. SUICIDE ( DEPRESSION )
Suicide is the second leading cause of death globally among
people 15 to 29 years of age, according to the 2014 global report
on preventing suicide by the World Health Organization.
In the Philippines, the estimated number of suicides in 2012 was
2,558 (550 female, 2009 male), according to the same report.
Meanwhile, the age-standardized suicide rate (per 100,000) in
2012 was 2.9 for both sexes – a 13.5 percent increase from 2.6 in
2000. For females, there was a 13 percent decrease from 1.4 in
2000 to 1.2 in 2012. For males, there was a 24.4 increase from 3.9
in 2000 to 4.8 in 2012.

ADOLESCENTS
The figures in the Philippines are lower than the annual global age-
standardized suicide rate of 11.4 per 100,000 population (15.0 for males
and 8.0 for females). The Philippines also has the lowest suicide rate
among ASEAN-member countries.
However, it is important to consider that suicides are likely to be
underreported.
Suicide and the youth
There is little available data on suicide among the youth in particular, but the 2013
Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study (YAFS4) showed a decline in the
proportion of youth who ever thought of suicide.
Conducted by UP Population Institute and the Demographic Research and
Development Foundation, YAFS4 found that among 15 to 19 year olds, the rate
was 13.4 in 2002, and 8.7 in 2013.
The study also noted a low level of suicide attempts in the same age group, with
3.4 in 2002 and 3.2 in 2013. However, there was an increase in the proportion of
suicide attempts among those who had thought of suicide, with 25 in 2002
and 36.7 in 2013.

ADOLESCENTS
Among Filipino students surveyed in the 2003–2004 Global
School based Student Health Survey (GSHS), 42 percent had
felt sad or hopeless for two weeks or more in the past year,
17.1 percent had seriously considered committing suicide in
the last year and 16.7 percent had made a plan about how
they would commit suicide.
According to the GSHS, females were more than twice as
likely as males to have had suicidal thoughts, but males were
more likely to carry out a suicidal act than females. As with
the other studies, it was likely that youth suicide rates were
underreported due to the associated stigma.

ADOLESCENTS
3. SUICIDE (
DEPRESSION )
In another study titled “Suicide in the Philippines: Time Trend Analysis
(1974-2005) and Literature Review” revealed that "while suicide rates are
low, increases in incidence and relatively high rates in adolescents and
young adults point to the importance of focused suicide prevention
programs."
Using data from Philippine Health Statistics, as well as published papers,
theses, and reports, the study by Maria Theresa Redaniel, David Gunndell
and May Antonnette Lebanan-Dalida found that suicide rates have been
steadily increasing in both sexes from 1984 and 2005.
For males, the rate increased from 0.23 to 3.59 per 100,000 and for
females, the rate increased from 0.12 to 1.09 per 100,000. The authors
noted that these increases might be explained by improved reporting and
changing social attitudes.

ADOLESCENTS
3. SUICIDE (
DEPRESSION )
The study also showed that in the mid-90s, rates in all age groups
peaked, and was most pronounced in the 15 to 24 age group. This is
unlike patterns in most countries, where rates tend to increase with
age, but the authors noted that "reasons for this excess in young
people in the Philippines require further investigation.“
According to the study, family and relationship problems were the
most common causes. In its profile of non-fatal self-harm cases,
around 52 to 87 percent of suicide hospital admissions reported
having problems with the spouse, boyfriend or girlfriend, or parents.
The study also highlighted the need to improve data quality and
reporting of suicide deaths to inform and evaluate prevention
strategies.

ADOLESCENTS
3. SUICIDE (
DEPRESSION )
As in other studies, the authors wrote that there is likely to be
underreporting because of non acceptance by the Catholic
Church and the associated disgrace and stigma to the family.
This is also something that the Natasha Goulbourn Foundation
has tried to address by reaching out to the Catholic Bishops'
Conference of the Philippines so that those who died by suicide
can still receive a Catholic burial.
As there is still no national suicide prevention program, public
education is done mostly groups like Natasha Goulbourn
Foundation and the Philippine Psychiatric Association, which is
pushing for a Mental Health Act.
“The important things to remember are that suicide is a
worldwide phenomenon, it's a public health issue hitting the
youth and causing economic losses, and that it's preventable,”
Nadera said. — RSJ/KBK/JST, GMA News

MANILA, Philippines (2nd UPDATE) – President Rodrigo Duterte has
signed the landmark Mental Health Law, which would provide affordable
and accessible mental health services for Filipinos
Senator Risa Hontiveros on Thursday, June 21, lauded Duterte, saying the
signing of Republic Act 11036 would “set the path for the government’s
policy in integrating mental healthcare in the country's public healthcare
system.”
The law would secure the rights and welfare of persons with mental health
needs and mental health professionals; provide mental health services
down to the barangays; integrate psychiatric, psychosocial, and
neurologic services in regional, provincial, and tertiary hospitals; improve
mental healthcare facilities; and promote mental health education in
schools and workplaces.
"No longer shall Filipinos suffer silently in the dark. The people's mental
health issues will now cease to be seen as an invisible sickness spoken
only in whispers,” Hontiveros said.
Mental Health Act.

ADOLESCENTS
4. HEALTH CONCERNS IN RELATION TO CHILD
LABOR2011 SURVEY
There were 14 regions with at least one working child in every ten
children. Among these regions, Northern Mindanao had the highest
proportion of working children aged 5 to 17 years at 22.1 percent . In
contrast, the least proportion was reported for the National Capital
Region, at 5.4 percent.

MAIN REASON FOR WORKING
Two top reasons reported by the working children :
To help in their own household-operated farm or business with 45.3
percent of them citing such reason, and to earn in order to
supplement the income of their family or because children believe
that being able to do so is important for their family well-being (27.8%) .
These were the most common reasons reported by both working boys
and girls, and in all regions . To gain experience or acquire training
came third among the reasons as mentioned by one in every ten (9.3%)
working children .
LABOR
ADOLESCENTS

ADOLESCENTS
LABOR
INJURIES AND ILLNESSES
Children who have had a work-related injury or i1lness totaled to 848
thousand, representing one in every four (25.6%) working children in the
country. Of these children, 84.2 percent have had an injury while at work,
while 73.8 percent have suffered from an illness . These children who ever
experienced work-related injury or illness were mostly boys (76.2% or 647
thousand) and age 15 to 17 years (61.1 % or 518 thousand).

ESTIMATES OF CHILD LABOR The 2011 SOC
Revealed that the number of working children considered as engaged in
child labor was estimated at 2.1 million or 63.3 percent of the 3.3 million
children 5 to 17 years old who worked during the week prior' to the survey.
Working children considered not engaged in child labor comprised 36.7
percent of the total working children. ' Most of the 2.1 million working
children engaged in child labor were in hazardous work numbering
approximately 2.0 million or 61.9 percent of the total working children. The
rest (49 thousand or 1.5 percent of the working children) were in other child
labor, that is, those children in the age group 5 to 14 years who worked in
excess of the allowable work hours. Those in hazardous child labor
comprised mostly of children working in hazardous environment (2.0 million
or 88.7%). They accounted for more than half (54.9 %) of the tolal working
children. Those who worked longer than the allowable hours and during
night time was estimated at 232 thousand (equivalent to 11.3 percent of the
total children in hazardous child labor) or 7.0 percent of the total working
ADOLESCENTS
LABOR

KOHIBERG’S THEORY
OF MORAL REASONING
Lawrence Kohlberg viewed development in terms
of different levels of reasoning applied to choices
people make in their lives. This type of moral
reasoning occurs throughout a person’s life and
depends on an individual’s social interaction. A
person evolves from one level of reasoning to
another as he/she is able to understand the higher
level of reasoning and is able to experience in
social interactions a conflict that implies then to
accept the newer, higher-level values
KohIberg viewed moral reasoning in three levels which included six
sequential stages. KohIberg perceived these stages as universal, that is,
no stage is ever skipped, and applicable to all cultures. Kohlberg stressed
that the actual decisions people make are not important, but that the
reasoning behind the decisions was important. This reasoning determines
which stage of development a child is in.

KOHlBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
REASONING
Level One: Preconventional Morality
( self – gratification
)
At this level, the child makes decisions
based on cultural roles of what is
considered to be right or wrong. The
reasoning applied is based upon reward
and punishment and the satisfaction of
their own needs.
This level is divided into two
stages

The reasoning applied during this stage is the one that satisfies the
needs of the individual and sometimes the needs of others. However, the
only reason that the individual helps another is because a deal has been
made where the person the individual helps owes him/her something.
KOHIBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
REASONING
Level One: Preconventional Morality
( self – gratification )
Stage One Punishment and Obedience
Orientation
The child acting in this level avoids breaking rules
because he/she may be punished. The child
demonstrates complete deference to rules. Often
the interest of others are not considered.
Stage Two Instrumental Relativist Orientation.

REASONING
Conformity is the most important aspect at this level. The individual
conforms to the expectation of others, including the general social
order.
Level Two: Conventional Morality
Living up to the expectations of others and good behavior are the
important considerations for the individual in this stage. There is an
emphasis on gaining approval by being nice.
Stage Three
Interpersonal concordance or “Good Boy/Nice Girl
Orientation.”

The person acting in this stage is oriented towards authority and
maintaining the social order. The emphasis is on doing one’s duty and
showing respect for authority.
REASONING
Level Two: Conventional Morality
Stage Four “Law and Order” Orientation.

People who are in this level make decisions on the basis of
individual values that have been internalized. These values are not
dependent on one’s friends, family, or group, but totally on the
individual making the decision. The stages of reasoning also
comprise this level.
REASONING
Level Three: Postconventional Morality
In this stage, correct behavior is defined in
terms of individual rights and the consensus of
society. Right is a matter of personal opinion
and values, but there is an emphasis on the
legal point of view present here.
Stage Five Social Contract, Legalistic
Orientation.

In this highest stage, the correct behavior is
defined as a decision of conscience in
accordance with self-chosen ethical
principles that are logical, universal and
consistent. These are very abstract
guidelines. (Kohlberg and Kramer, 1969)
KOHIBERG’S THEORY OF
MORAL REASONING
Level Three: Postconventional Morality
Stage Six
Universal Ethical Principle Orientation.

Jean Piaget dedicated most of his life’s work
to understanding how children develop
intellectually. His work on cognitive
development is the most complete theory
available today and is widely used. (Pulaski,
1970) According to Piagetian theory,
children progress through four stages in
their cognitive development—
sensorimotor …………………..(birth to two
years of age),
pre-operational ………………(2 to 7 years of
age),
concrete operational ……..(7 to 11 years of
age)
and formal operational…. (11 to 15 years of
age).
Each of these stages represent a
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Jean
Piaget'stheory of cognitive development. It begins at approximately
age 12 and lasts into adulthood.
At this point in development, thinking becomes
much more sophisticated and advanced. Kids can
think about abstract and theoretical concepts and
use logic to come up with creative solutions to
problems. Skills such as logical thought,
deductive reasoning, and systematic planning
also emerge during this stage.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development

From age eleven to sixteen and onwards
(development of abstract reasoning). Children
develop abstract thought and can easily conserve
and think logically in their mind. Abstract thought is
newly present during this stage of development.
Children are now able to think abstractly and
utilize metacognition Along with this, the children in
the formal operational stage display more skills
oriented towards problem solving, often in multiple
steps.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

Piaget's Research
Piaget tested formal operational thought in a
few different ways. Two of the better-known
tests explored physical conceptualization and
the abstraction of thought.
Conceptualizing Balance
One task involved having children of different
ages balance a scale by hooking weights on
each end. To balance the scale, the children
needed to understand that both the heaviness of
the weights and distance from the center played
a role.

Piaget’s Theory of
Cognitive Development
Younger children around the ages of 3 and
5 were unable to complete the task
because they did not understand the
concept of balance. Seven-year-olds knew
that they could adjust the scale by placing
weights on each end, but failed to
understand that where they put the
weights was also important. By age 10,
the kids considered location as well as
weight but had to arrive at the correct
answer using trial-and-error.
It wasn't until around age 13 that children
could use logic to form a hypothesis about
where to place the weights to balance the
scale and then complete the task.

Abstraction of Ideas
In another experiment on formal operational thought,
Piaget asked children to imagine where they would
want to place a third eye if they had one. Younger
children said that they would put the imagined third
eye in the middle of their forehead. Older children,
however, were able to come up with a variety of
creative ideas about where to place this hypothetical
eye and various ways the eye could be used.
For example, an eye in the middle of one's hand
would be useful for looking around corners. An
eye at the back of one's head could be helpful
for seeing what is happening in the background.
Creative ideas represent the use of abstract and
hypothetical thinking, both important indicators of
formal operational thought.

Abstract Thought
While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier
stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the
formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous
experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and
consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term
planning.
Deductive Logic
Piaget believed that deductive reasoning
becomes necessary during the formal
operational stage. Deductive logic
requires the ability to use a general
principle to determine a particular
outcome. Science and mathematics often
require this type of thinking about
hypothetical situations and concepts.

Problem-Solving
In earlier stages, children used
trial-and-error to solve
problems. During the formal
operational stage, the ability to
systematically solve a problem in
a logical and methodical way
emerges. Children at the formal
operational stage of cognitive
development are often able to
plan quickly an organized
approach to solving a problem.

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Piaget believed that what he referred to as
"hypothetical-deductive reasoning" was essential
at this stage of intellectual development. At this
point, teens become capable of thinking about
abstract and hypothetical ideas. They often ponder
"what-if" type situations and questions and can
think about multiple solutions or possible
outcomes.
While kids in the previous stage (concrete
operations) are very particular in their thoughts,
kids in the formal operational stage become
increasingly abstract in their thinking.
As children gain greater awareness and
understanding of their own thought processes, they
develop what is known as metacognition, or the
ability to think about their thoughts as well as the
ideas of others.

(1) using Piagetian tasks to determine the intellectual ability of
students;
(2) teaching students with cognitive levels in mind;
(3) being careful to sequence instruction;
(4) testing children to find the results of teaching;
(5) encouraging social interaction to facilitate learning, and
(6) remembering that children’s thought processes are not the same
as adults.
Piaget’s Theory of
Cognitive Development
Although Piaget was not interested in
formal teaching strategies, educators
have applied Piagetian concepts to
educate children.
Examples of Piagetian theory
being used in school

Raised in a Jewish family in New
York City She was the only child of
a lawyer, William Friedman, and
nursery school teacher, Mabel
Caminez. She attended Walden
School, a progressive private
school on Manhattan's Upper West
Side, played piano and pursued a
career in modern dance during her
graduate studies. Gilligan received
her B.A. summa cum
laude in English
literature from Swarthmore College,
a master's degree in clinical
psychology from Radcliffe College,
and a Ph.D. in social psychology
from Harvard University
CAROL GILLIGAN

GILIGAN’S ETHICS OF CARE THEORY
In her book In a Different Voice Gilligan presented
her Ethics of Care theory as an alternative to Lawrence
Kohlberg's hierarchal and principled approach to
ethics. In contrast to Kohlberg, who claimed that girls,
and therefore also women, did not in general develop
their moral abilities to the highest levels, Gilligan
argued that women approached ethical problems
differently from men. According to Gilligan, women's
moral viewpoints center around the understanding
of responsibilities and relationship while men's
moral viewpoints instead center around the
understanding of moral fairness, which is tied to
rights and rules. Women also tend to see moral issues
as a problem of conflicting responsibilities rather than
competing rights. So while women perceive the
situation as more contextual and narrative, men define
the situation as more formal and abstract. She calls the
different moral approaches "Ethics of care" and
"Ethics of justice" and recognizes them as
fundamentally incompatible.

GILIGAN’S ETHICS OF CARE
THEORY
Gilligan's reply was to assert that women were not inferior in their
personal or moral development, but that they were different. They
developed in a way that focused on connections among people (rather
than separation) and with an ethic of care for those people (rather than an
ethic of justice). Gilligan lays out in this groundbreaking book this
alternative theory.
Thus Gilligan produces her own stage theory of moral
development for women. Like Kohlberg's, it has three
major divisions: preconventional, conventional, and
post conventional. But for Gilligan, the transitions
between the stages are fueled by changes in the
sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive
capability. Remember that Kohlberg's approach is
based on Piaget's cognitive developmental model.
Gilligan's is based instead on a modified version of
Freud's approach to ego development. Thus Gilligan is
combining Freud (or at least a Freudian theme) with
Kohlberg & Piaget.

GILIGAN’S ETHICS OF CARE THEORY
Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care
Approximate Age
Range
Stage Goal
not listed Preconventional
Goal is individual
survival
Transition is from selfishness -- to -- responsibility to others
not listed Conventional
Self sacrifice is
goodness
Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that she is a person too
maybe never Postconventional
Principle of nonviolence:
do not hurt others or self

In concepts of self and morality Gilligan introduces the abortion study
and lays out the sequence of development you saw in the table
above. You have two basic issues to grapple with here. First, make sure
you understand how Gilligan's system is both similar to and different from
Kohlberg's. How does the meaning of conventional change from one
system to the other? Second, make sure you understand how the woman's
self concept is involved in each of the stages and in the transition from
each stage to the next.
GILIGAN’S ETHICS OF CARE
THEORY
Gilligan's book is a complaint against the male centered personality
psychology of Freud and Erickson, and the male centered developmental
psychology of Kohlberg. her complaint is not that it is unjust to leave
women out of psychology (though she says that). her complaint is that it is
not good psychology if it leaves out half of the human race.

Adolescents are not monsters. They are just people trying
to learn how to make it among the adults in the world,
who are probably not so sure themselves.
~Virginia Satir, The New Peoplemaking, 1988

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