The document provides an overview of leadership concepts including trait theory, behavioral theory, contingency theory, and transformational leadership. It discusses various approaches to leadership such as charismatic, authentic, and situational leadership. It also examines challenges to the concept of leadership including attribution theory and substitutes/neutralizers. The document contains case studies on Reverend Jim Jones and Colleen Barrett to illustrate different types of leadership.
Chapter 8 Organization LeadershipIntroductionGreat le
1. Chapter 8:
Organization Leadership
Introduction
Great leaders exist in business, politics, the military, and even
sports
Leadership can be used for good and for evil
Communication is a tool used to activate messages to followers
Leadership is a socially constructed phenomenon
Case Study: Charismatic Preacher
Reverend Jim Jones was a charismatic, influential preacher who
led rapidly growing congregations throughout California
People were so inspired, that they donated their entire worldly
possessions, traveled to South America, and built a community
Several years later, the Reverend leads a mass suicide of 909
people in his town of Jonestown, Guyana
Why would people be so committed to him that they would
participate in a mass suicide?
What does this say about leadership?
Trait Approach to Leadership
If a person has certain traits, they will be a more effective
leader
Big Five personality traits with leadership potential include:
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Openness to experience
Ambition
Energy
2. The trait approach to leadership seems to be best able to predict
leader emergence rather than leader effectiveness
There is a difference between possessing a trait and being
perceived to possess a trait
4
Leadership Behaviors
The behavioral approach to leadership examines what leaders
actually do and the behaviors leaders use to achieve their goals
It’s a matter of what you do (behavior theory), rather than who
you are (trait theory) as a leader
Critical Thinking Questions – Traits and Behaviors
How does the perspective that leadership is something you do
versus something you are change the responsibilities of a
leader?
The University of Michigan and Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
Extent to which a leader defines and structures the roles of
employees in the goal attainment effort
Production-oriented leaders have behavior similar to initiating
structure
Consideration
Leader respects employees’ thoughts, ideas, and feelings,
3. expresses appreciation and support, and develops an
environment of mutual trust
Employee-oriented leaders also value consideration
Managerial Grid
Contingent Approaches to Leadership
Questions examined by contingency theorists include:
What are the situational factors that actually matter in
leadership?
To what leadership styles do they best connect?
Least Preferred Co-Worker
Fiedler (1967) developed Least preferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire
Rating “least” preferred coworker harshly = task-oriented leader
Rating “least” preferred coworker benevolently = relationship-
oriented
Once individual leadership style is assessed, the situation is
determined through three dimensions: 1) Leader-member
relations 2) Task structure 3) Position power
Critical Thinking Questions – Least Preferred
Why does the way a person treats the least preferred co-worker
likely say the most about their style of leadership?
Think about your experiences working in groups. How did you
feel about the least-preferred group member? What kind of
leader are you likely to be based on this?
4. Leader-Member Exchange
Leader-Member Exchange Theory demonstrates how leaders can
create their own context, by creating in-groups and out-groups
amongst their own employees
In-Group members receive trust, openness in communication,
and high levels of interactions with the leader
Out-Group members receive less leader attention, more
formalistic relations, and are generally not provided the same
resources and encouragement in their skill development
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Situational Leadership
Style of leadership should consider the maturity of one’s
subordinates
Model includes four leadership quadrants:
Telling (low maturity employees) to
Selling (low to moderate maturity employees) to
Participating (moderate to high maturity employees) to
Delegating (high maturity employees)
Continuum of Leadership Behavior
Continuum of Leadership Behavior
5. A successful manager or leader must be able to match his or her
behavior to the specific situation in which they find themselves
From managers making and announcing decisions to…
Subordinates allowed to do so within the limits defined by their
superior
Charismatic Leadership and Transformational Approaches
Attempt to blend three questions into a more unified and
integrated approach:
Is leadership who we are?
Is leadership what we do?
Is leadership the relationship between the leader and situation?
Charismatic Leadership Theory
Asserts that followers attribute extraordinary (even heroic)
leadership abilities to leaders when they observe a certain
combination of leader behaviors, including:
They articulate a vision discrepant from the status quo
They take personal risks to achieve that vision
They demonstrate a sensitivity to followers’ needs
And they exhibit unconventional behavior to galvanize the
attention of employees and demonstrate the leader’s goals and
values
Transformation Leadership Theory
Transactional leaders guide their followers by clarifying role
and task requirements by using:
Laissez Fair leadership
Management by exception leadership
6. Contingent reward leadership
Transformational leadership builds on this, and inspires
follower effort to transcend their self-interest for the good of
the organization
Individualized consideration, Intellectual stimulation,
Inspirational motivation, Idealized influence
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership focuses on the moral aspects of being a
leader, and addresses downfalls of charismatic leadership, that
leaders can be self-interested
Authentic behaviors produce trust, encouraging people have
faith in the leaders who use them
Enhanced trust enhances information sharing, effectiveness, and
productivity
Challenges to the Leadership Construct – Attributions,
Substitutes and Neutralizers
Attribution theory of leadership suggests that leadership is
simply an attribution that people make about other individuals
Further, leader behaviors may not be as relevant in all
organizational situations
There are substitutes and neutralizers that can limit the effects
of leader behavior
For example, leadership may be less effective or needed if
employees are extremely experienced in their jobs, with high
levels of training and ability, are cohesive, and intrinsically
motivated with strong levels of professional orientation. If
employees exhibit individual indifference toward organizational
7. rewards, or their jobs are highly structured or routinized and
provide their own feedback, the effects of leadership may also
be less significant. Finally, the physical separation of the
leader may have muting effects on leadership.
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Case Study: Lead with LUV
Colleen Barrett, President of Southwest Airlines, described
leadership in the following way:
“LUV is our symbol on the New York Stock Exchange. We first
started flying out of Love Field in Dallas, and our first
advertising slogan in 1972 was “Southwest Airlines, the
Someone Else Up There Who LUVs You.” We also had a heart
on our first signature line and letterhead. And today, forty years
later, we still have our hearts on our aircraft. So, frankly, if you
have a need to put a label on what I do, I would prefer that you
call me a LUVing Leader.”
Leading Change
A constant in life is that things change, and many people do not
like it
People are uncomfortable with change because of the unknown
Good leaders must be willing to adapt and adjust to change
Good leaders must also try to avoid disasters while managing
change
Vital Aspects of Leading
Being a visionary is one way to be a leader, especially during
times of change
Translating vision into reality requires anchoring,
implementing, and executing a vision
Good leaders also empower others, especially during times of
change
8. Leadership is about translating intention and vision into reality
Strong communication skills are necessary to be a good leader
Listening, Leadership, and Change
Listening is vital if any leader is going to be truly effective
Especially important during times of change when there is fear
of the unknown
Good leaders understand that listening, even if it means hearing
about our weaknesses, is vital to effective and meaningful
interaction
Leaders should help followers develop into leaders themselves
The Distinction Between Leadership and Management
Leadership and management are not the same
Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the
achievement of a vision or set of goals
Management is a broader concept that focuses on planning,
organizing, and controlling functions within organizations
Context Matters
For Profit Organizations
Larger corporations tend to have many levels and dimensions of
leadership
Small Businesses
Leadership may be shared and decisions made more quickly
because there are fewer levels
Non-Profit Organizations
Specific values tend to guide and limit leadership
Government Sector
11. Basic packet filtering – Filtering that looks at each packet
entering or leaving the network and then either accepts the
packet or rejects the packet based on user-defined rules. Each
packet is examined separately.
Bridge – A network device that separates traffic into separate
collision domains at the data layer of the OSI model.
Cloud computing – The automatic provisioning of on demand
computational resources across a network.
Coaxial cable – A network cable that consists of a solid center
core conductor and a physical spacer to the outer conductor
which is wrapped around it. Commonly used in video systems.
Collision domain – An area of shared traffic in a network where
packets from different conversations can collide.
Concentrator – A device used to manage multiple similar
networking operations, such as provide a VPN endpoint for
multiple VPNs.
Data loss prevention (DLP) – Technology, processes, and
procedures designed to detect when unauthorized removal of
data from a system occurs. DLP is typically
active, preventing the loss of data, either by blocking the
transfer or dropping the connection.
Firewall – A network device used to segregate traffic based on
rules.
Hypervisor - A low-level program that allows multiple
operating systems to run concurrently on a single host
computer.
Hub – A network device used to connect devices at the physical
layer of the OSI model.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – The automatic, on-demand
provisioning of infrastructure elements, operating as a service; a
common element of cloud computing.
Internet content filters – A content-filtering system use to
protect corporations from employees’ viewing of inappropriate
or illegal content at the workplace and the subsequent
complications that occur when such viewing takes place.
14. Router – A network device that operates at the network layer of
the OSI model.
Sandboxing – The concept of isolating a system and specific
processes form the OS in order to provide specific levels of
security.
Servers – The computers in a network that host applications and
data for everyone to share.
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) – A physical network connection
consisting of two wires twisted and covered with a shield to
prevent interference.
Software as a Service (SaaS) – The provisioning of software as
a service, commonly known as on-demand software.
Solid-state drive (SSD) – A mass storage device, such as a hard
drive, that is composed of electronic memory as opposed to a
physical device of spinning platters.
Switch – A network device that operates at the data layer of the
OSI model.
Unified threat management (UTM) – The aggregation of
multiple network security products into a single appliance for
efficiency purposes.
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) – A form of network cabling in
which pairs of wires are twisted to reduce crosstalk. Commonly
used in LANs.
Virtualization – An abstraction of the OS layer, creating the
ability to host multiple OSs on a single piece of hardware.
Web security gateway – A device that combines proxy functions
with content-filtering functions with the intention of addressing
the security threats and pitfalls unique to web-based traffic.
Wireless access point – A network access device that facilitates
the connection of wireless devices to a network.
Workstation – The machine that sits on the desktop and is used
every day for sending and reading e-mail, creating spreadsheets,
writing reports in a word processing program, and playing
games.
6
36. Control (MAC) address.
Bus topology – A network layout in which a common line (the
bus) connects devices.
Datagram – A packet of data that can be transmitted over a
packet-switched system in a connectionless mode.
Denial-of-service (DoS) – An attack in which actions are taken
to deprive authorized individuals from accessing a system, its
resources, the data it stores or processes, or the network to
which it is connected.
Domain Name System (DNS) – An attack in which actions are
taken to deprive authorized individuals from accessing a
system, its resources, the data it stores or processes, or the
network to which it is connected.
DMZ – A network segment that exists in a semi-protected zone
between the Internet and the inner, secure trusted network.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) – An Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Protocol (IP)
specification for automatically allocating IP addresses and other
configuration information based on network adapter addresses.
It enables address pooling and allocation and simplifies TCP/IP
installation and administration.
Enclave – A section of a network that serves a specific purpose
and is isolated by protocols from other parts of a network.
Ethernet – The common name for the IEEE 802.3 standard
method of packet communication between two nodes at layer 2.
Extranet – an extension of a selected portion of a company’s
intranet to external partners.
Flat network – A network design that avoids packet-looping
issues through an architecture that does not have tiers.
3
Key Terms (2 of 3)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Intranet
Local area network (LAN)
39. Storage area network (SAN) – A technology-based storage
solution consisting of network attached storage.
Subnetting – The creation of a network within a network by
manipulating how an IP address is split into network and host
portions.
Subnet mask – The information that tells a device how to
interpret the network and host portions of an IP address.
Three-way handshake – A means of ensuring information
transference through a three-step data exchange. Used to initiate
a TCP connection.
Topology – Describes how the network is physically or
logically arranged.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – The connection-oriented
transport layer protocol for use on the Internet that allows
packet-level tracking of a conversation.
Trunking – The process of spanning a single VLAN across
multiple switches.
Tunneling – The process of packaging packets so that they can
traverse a network in a secure, confidential manner.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – A protocol in the TCP/ IP
protocol suite for the transport layer that does not sequence
packets—it is “fire and forget” in nature.
Virtual local area network (VLAN) – A broadcast domain inside
a switched system.
Wide area network (WAN) – A network that spans a large
geographic region.
5
Introduction
By the simplest definition in the data world, a network is a
means to connect two or more computers together for the
purposes of sharing information.
The term “network” has different meanings depending on the
context and usage.
Though data networks vary widely in size and scope, they are
generally defined in terms of their architecture, topology, and
59. ICMP has been greatly abused …
Chapter 12:
Celebrating Diversity
Introduction
The landscape of the workplace has changed
As the United States becomes more diverse, markets, customers,
and employees become more diverse
Changes in the racial and ethnic makeups of the work
environment are significant
By 2060 white Americans will only make up 43% of the U.S.
population
Women are expected to represent the majority of the U.S.
workforce by 2020
Case Study: Bass Pro Shop
In the mid-2000s, managers at various Bass Pro Shops stores
using discriminatory language and hiring practices were
reported
A lawsuit was filed against the corporation and is still being
litigated today
What terms make you feel uncomfortable?
Does it surprise you that there are still situations like this
today?
Is this an isolated case?
Major Diversity Categories in Organizations
Race: Percentage of traditional racial minorities in the U.S.
workforce is increasing
National origin: Growing proportion of today’s workers are
60. immigrants, and English is not their first language
Age: Increasing number of employees expect to work past the
traditional retirement age
Disability: Firms need to provide reasonable accommodation so
workplaces are accessible
Religion: Inclusion of diverse religious faiths and customs
Sex: Ensure equal access and opportunities in hiring
Engaging a Diverse Environment
The number of women and people of color in the American
workforce is increasing
The average age of the American workforce is increasing
Diversity encompasses how we think, act, conduct business;
more than just what we “look like”
The Aging Workforce
Between 1977 and 2007, employment of workers 65+ increased
101%, compared to a much smaller increase of 59% for total
employment
With the aging of the baby-boom generation, the older age
cohorts are expected to make up a larger proportion of the labor
force in the next two decades
This aging workforce impacts the organizational environment in
many ways, including stereotypes
Organizations are stronger when workers embrace the
differences in understandings, experiences, attitudes, and
expectations that each generation has to offer
Sex and Gender Issues
Number of men in the workforce increased by about 53% from
1967-2009
During the same timespan, the number of women in the
61. workforce increased by over 190%
Incomes for women in the workforce are rising, but there is still
a significant gap between earnings of men and women
Institutionalization of masculine male and feminine female
complicates understanding
It is important to distinguish between sex and gender
Critical Thinking Questions – Sex and Gender
Why do sex and gender matter in organizational
communication?
In what ways is masculinity celebrated and/or dismissed in our
culture? In the workplace?
In what ways is femininity celebrated and/or dismissed in our
culture? In the workplace?
Racial and Ethnic Issues
Higher population growth and increasing participation rates
mean minorities in the workforce will increase significantly
Discrimination still remains a problem
A healthy work environment will develop an understanding and
climate that sees all individuals as people of equal worth
Disabled Workers
American with Disabilities Act (ADA) passed into law in 1990,
prohibiting discrimination against individuals with disabilities
in all areas of public life
Employers must provide reasonable accommodation for disabled
employees
If a disability is not job-related or can be accommodated,
organizations should not discriminate
Communication technology is providing additional
opportunities that influence the ability of the disabled worker
62. Intercultural Issues
Culture: system of shared values, beliefs, and meaning
Ethnocentrism: evaluating others’ culture against our own
Perception: influences our worldview
Stereotyping: judging a person based on the group to which we
perceive them as belonging
Nonverbal differences: meaning of a symbol in one country may
differ in another; a potential barrier
Language difference: can even vary between regions
Cultural intelligence: adapting, selecting, shaping cultural
aspects of environment
Critical Thinking Questions - Diversity
In what ways have you been discriminated against because of
your:
Age?
Race?
Sex or gender?
Abilities?
What are some of the issues or barriers that prevent us from
communicating effectively in intercultural environments?
Dealing with Emotion
Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something
Both energy and stability are needed in the workplace
Just like personality, a range (or diversity) of emotional
response when balanced can help keep an organizational team
focused and effective
Emotions can help us gauge the effectiveness of potential
changes, response to decisions, or buy-in to future projects
63. Understanding Personality
Personality describes the sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts to and interacts with others
One personality type is not better than another – they are just
different
We must be aware of our own personality and the impact it has
on our environment – and make adjustments when necessary
Discrimination
Stereotypes often lead to workplace discrimination
Whether an individual is a person of color or white, male or
female, gay or straight, disabled or otherly abled are often
extraneous factors not relevant to the organizational or job-
related decision at hand
When we place individuals or groups of people in categories,
we rob them of their uniqueness and individuality
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment is a special abuse of power that we discuss
briefly here because it becomes a hindrance to diversity
Unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other
verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that create a
hostile or offensive work environment
Organizations must train and educate their employees on what
sexual harassment is, and what policies and practices exist
within the organization and the law to guard against sexual
harassment
Technology and Diversity
64. Technology can both encourage and hinder diversity
Technology can also provide more tools to manage the process
to improve communication and a different method of dealing
with cross-cultural communication issues and stereotypes
A text-only (email or texting)
Voice-only (traditional phone)
Using a more rich channel of verbal and non-verbal information
(voice and physical)
Face-to-face or video-conference
Organizational Culture and Diversity
Organizational Values
Organizational values should primarily align with personal
values if one is to feel comfortable participating in the
organizational environment
An appreciation for diversity is vital for organizational success
A diversity of ideas and values in regards to the direction and
movement of the organization helps leaders make better
decisions
Leadership and Management Styles
Different organizational environments require different types of
leadership
Even in the same organization, different styles and approaches
are necessary with different employees or in different situations
Diversity in leadership and management styles is important for
organizational success
Climate Issues
65. Organizational climate is the shared perception of employees of
the properties of the work environment that guide expected
behavior
Safety, justice, clarity of rules and regulations, as well as clear
goals and expectations, help employees understand how they
and others fit into the organization
It is important for a diverse organization to emphasize the need
for a variety of ideas, with standards of performance and
expectations of teamwork and encouraging a variety of inputs
from diverse sources
Working with Difficult People
In a diverse work environment, there’s an enhanced likelihood
that we are going to work with someone who sees things from a
different point of view
This is a core benefit of diversity; it is also a personal
challenge, as you may have to accomplish tasks with people
who you do not understand or agree with
Practice the art of active listening, whereby you truly listen to
another’s point of view
Effective Organizational Diversity Programs
Firms can focus on attracting diverse applicants by targeting
recruiting messages to specific demographic groups currentl y
underrepresented in one’s workforce
An effective diversity program will also educate managers about
the legal framework of equal employment opportunity,
encourage equitable treatment of all employees regardless of
diversity characteristics
Firms can foster practices that focus on bringing out the full
potential of the diversity in their organizations
66. Context Matters
For-Profit Organization
Good-ole-boy networks can make it difficult for large
organizations to embrace diversity
Entrepreneurship
Families and small businesses often do not have enough
employees to truly encourage diversity
Nonprofit Organization
Focus of the company may influence consideration of diversity
Government Sector
Differing political views influence government policies