2. Introduction
Women in the Labor Force
Year % of Women in the Workforce
1900 18.3%
1950 29.6%
2001 46.6%
2018 56.8%
3. Gender and Income
Figure 15.1 Women’s earnings as a percent of men’s,
median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and
salary workers, by age, 1979–2012 annual averages.
Data from US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Earnings. (2019, April 29). Retrieved from
https://www.bls.gov/cps/earnings.htm
5. Historical Issues
• Colonial times
• Industrial Revolution
• The New York Married Women’s Property Act
(1848)
• World War II era—“Rosie the Riveter”
• Post–World War II era
• 1974: Equal Credit Opportunity Act
6. Unemployment Rates by Age
and Sex, 2019
Figure 15.2 Unemployment rates by age
and sex, January 2019.
Data from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019). Labor
force statistics.
7. Education and Employment
Figure 15.3 Percentage of working men
and women by age, 2016 averages and
2024 projections.
Data from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2016 Current
Population Survey and 2024 employment Projections.
9. Special Populations (1 of 2)
• Women with disabilities confront many barriers in
the workplace.
– Lack of opportunities or appropriate jobs
– Inaccessible work environments, parking, or
public transportation
– Discouragement by family and friends
– Fear of losing health insurance or Medicaid
– Parking and public transportation challenges
• Women with disabilities are more likely than other
women to be unemployed, especially when
disabilities are severe.
11. Socioeconomic Issues
• Many unique challenges for low-income women
– Low-wage workers are disproportionately
women and minorities with family
responsibilities.
– Childcare costs can exceed wages.
– Few or no benefits
– More likely to have children with special
needs
12. Unequal Pay for Equal Work
(1 of 2)
Women make about
82 cents for every
dollar men make,
but disparities vary
by age, education
level, occupation,
and other factors.
14. Workplace Realities for Women
• 97% of women are worried about healthcare costs.
• 88% do not have retirement benefits.
• 78% are concerned about lack of job benefits.
• 57% do not have equal pay for equal work.
• 39% do not have affordable health insurance.
• 29% do not have paid sick leave.
• 24% do not have paid vacation time.
– AFL-CIO Survey, 2006
While women overall are more likely than men to be among the
working poor, African American and Hispanic women are
two to three times more likely than White women to be
members of the working poor.
15. Achieving Equal Pay
• Education is key
• Understand what is fair and equitable pay
for job position
• Understand wage discrimination laws
16. Work-Life Balance
• Job, household,
family and extended
family duties
• Multiple roles =
stress and
satisfaction
• Balance is essential.
Many women who have entered
the workforce continue to work on
household chores and childcare
when they return home from work.
17. Day Care
• Women are usually assigned responsibility for
finding and keeping up with day care.
• For parents of children between ages 3 and 5,
childcare is the biggest expense after housing
and food.
• Finding good childcare is very difficult.
• Even if you do find it and can afford it, it’s still
stressful!
19. Current Situation: Employers
• Even when benefits are present, they are often
not available to employees with the greatest
need.
• When services are available to lower-paid
employees, the fees are usually too high for
their earnings.
20. Health and Safety
Class discussion
– What are some factors that contribute to
work-related stress for women?
– What are some jobs where women have little
control over events?
– What are some factors that impact safe work
environments for women?
21. Gender Differences: Workplace
Safety
• Men more likely to be injured than women,
except in some fields
• Women more likely to have musculoskeletal
injuries
22. Occupational Exposures
Class discussion
• What are some high risk industries for
occupational exposures, especially for women
and minorities?
• What are some unique hazards faced by workers
in healthcare facilities?
24. Other Workplace Health
Concerns
Class discussion
• What are some special health concerns of:
– Seasonal or domestic workers?
– Youth workers?
– Pregnant and lactating women?
25. Global Dimensions
• Gender gaps improving
• Women still face discrimination, lower pay and
fewer opportunities.
• Women still spend at least twice as much time
as men doing unpaid household work.
• Working women are essential for national
economies.
26. Global Look at Paid Family
Leave
Class discussion
• The United States, Swaziland, and Papua New
Guinea are the only three countries in the world
that do not guarantee women any paid family
leave. What do other countries offer and why is
the U.S. behind?
27. Family and Medical Leave Act
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)
– Provides 12 weeks of unpaid, job-
guaranteed leave
– Covers half of working U.S. population
