On the debate surrounding recovered traumatic memories.

1. The Recovered Memory Debate<br />Daniel Fishman<br />Fielding Graduate University<br />The Recovered Memory Debate<br />Beginning in the 1980s a marked increase in the incidence of recovered repressed memories was observed. Many of these recovered memories were of an exceptionally traumatic nature such as child sexual abuse (CSA). Many, but not all, of the individuals who experienced this phenomenon were also afflicted with debilitating psychological disturbances. Similarly, many of these cases of recovered memories occurred within a psychotherapeutic context. . In all of these instances, however, the recovery of the memories resulted in significant events in the lives of those who recovered them and those around them ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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Based on prior experience, Janet hypothesized that Lucie’s condition may be the result of an inaccessible memory. In an attempt to access this memory, Janet employed a technique known as automatic writing. A confederate would sit across from Lucie and carry on a conversation. During this conversation Janet placed the pencil in Lucy's anesthetic hand and whispered questions into her ear. According to Janet's report, in this manner Lucie was able to relate in writing the disturbing memory that she was not able to consciously access or articulate verbally. Remarkably, a similar phenomenon wherein a portion of a patient’s mind could be engaged in a constructive activity without the patient being fully aware was later observed in split brain patients, individuals who for various reasons had their corpus collosum severed. Moreover, often in these patients the two halves of the individuals brain could possess entirely different and sometimes conflicting wants, needs and desires (Tallis, 2002).<br /> The memory Janet recovered involved Lucie at age 7 years and two men who had concealed themselves behind a curtain in order to frighten her as a practical joke. Janet contended that a portion of Lucie's psyche dissociated itself from the main body of her psyche and remained fixed at this point in her life. Lucie’s psychogenic paralysis and fits of anxiety were reenactments of this terror. Janet further claims that by employing methods of hypnosis and suggestion he was able to alter this memory and reintegrate Lucie's fractured personality, thereby alleviating her symptoms (Tallis, 2002).<br />Lucie's case as presented by Janet is remarkable for the extreme hysterical nature of the symptoms; however, such symptomatology was relatively common for Janet's time. Not all cases involving repressed and later recovered memories present in such an alarming fashion. For example, Colangelo (2009) describes the case of Daniela who recovered memories of CSA prior to and within therapy: memories for which she subsequently secured corroboration from two independent sources.<br />Daniela, a 23-year-old single Caucasian Italian-American Roman Catholic female, presented for treatment with a long-standing history of bulimia, anxiety, panic disorder and alcohol abuse. Her proximate cause for seeking help was the increasing occurrence of flashbacks that she characterized as intrusive, involuntary thoughts and images of sexual abuse. Daniela stated that the symptoms began not long after her maternal grandfather came to live in her home. She also added that her anxiety and panic disorder had worsened within the same timeframe. As time progressed, Daniela's memories became increasingly definitive, detailed and explicit. She eventually confronted her estranged maternal aunt who confirmed that Daniela had been abused by her maternal grandfather and that, moreover, he had also abused Daniela's aunt and mother. Importantly, this case describes a patient who began to recover her memory spontaneously as opposed to exclusively within a psychotherapy environment.<br />Mechanisms of Forgetting: Repression, Dissociation, Suppression and Denial<br />Repression<br />Freud in the early part of the 20th century was the first to concisely articulate a theory of repression formed on the basis of warring psychic energies. Freud posited that the mind could in large part be divided into three psychic entities; id, ego, and superego. Of these three only the ego and superego achieved consciousness, with the ego’s function to mediate and regulate the warring factions of id (instinctual drive) and superego (internalized morality). He further proposed that certain ideas, when allowed to become conscious, engendered so much anxiety that the ego was forced to repress these thoughts into the subconscious. Significantly, such repression occurred without conscious awareness or participation of the individual. Freud further suggested that the psychic energy bound up in these repressed thoughts must find expression somewhere and thus resulted in pathology. Additionally, Freud himself acknowledged that recovered repressed memories may contain truthful as well as false elements ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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you saw it. The little girl was struggling, she was bleeding, and he gagged her. You saw it all, and were so distressed that you went to your apartment and did not dare to say anything. When you wake up you will think no more about it. I have not told the story to you; it is not a dream; it is not a vision I have given you during your hypnotic sleep; it is truth itself.quot;
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lost in the mallquot;
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]}]} (Cabeza, Rao, Wagner, Mayer, & Schacter, 2001; Curran, Schacter, Johnson, & Spinks, 2001; Fabiani, Stadler, & Wessels, 2000; Loftus, 2005b; Okado, 2005; Stark, Yoko Okado, & Loftus, 2010). Taken together these studies clearly demonstrate the fluidity and fallibility of memory. Unfortunately, although recent work with functional neuroimaging suggests the differentiation between true and false memories may be possible, it does not appear that individuals necessarily possess this capacity. Therefore, false memories and memory distortions once created are capable of inflicting incredible harm.<br />Concluding Remarks<br />In considering the above discussion several points become clear. Based on individual corroborated victim accounts it appears that people are able to remove trauma from consciousness only to later recall it. Importantly, this conclusion is based solely on the subjective report of what appears to be a relatively small number of corroborated cases. Additionally, it is impossible to objectively assess whether or not these individuals’ memories were ever truly removed from their consciousness and placed beyond their reach. These statements are in no way meant to diminish or discount the horrific trauma these individuals have lived through. It is simply meant to highlight what appears to be a rare psychological phenomenon, as studies have demonstrated that more often than not trauma increases the likelihood of remembering ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM {quot;
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]}]} (Alexander et al., 2005). It is also clear that human memory is highly malleable and subject to multiple misinformation effects, biases, and - in instances not as infrequent as one may think - implantation of entirely false memories. Given that these distortions and false memories can inflict as much as, or more harm than, factual events we must take extreme care not to inflict harm on our patients in our efforts to help them. To that end the data offered by Geraerts et al. may offer guidance. Rather than insisting that all recovered memories are either false or true, embracing an open-minded and cautious approach that acknowledges the potential for either to be the case may be of the most benefit to our patients.<br />References<br />Alexander, K. W., Quas, J. A., Goodman, G. S., Ghetti, S., Edelstein, R. S., Redlich, A. D., Cordon, I. M., et al. (2005). Traumatic Impact Predicts Long-Term Memory for Documented Child Sexual Abuse. 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