This study examined the relationships between mixed-gender friendships, gender identity, and substance use among college students. The researchers found that having more same-gender friends was associated with greater alcohol use for male students, but less alcohol and marijuana use for female students. A stronger gender identity was also linked to less marijuana use for both male and female students. For females, gender identity partially explained the link between same-gender friendships and lower marijuana use. The findings suggest that the gender of one's friends and one's gender identity both influence substance use during college.

1. ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Associations Between Mixed-Gender Friendships, Gender
Reference Group Identity and Substance Use
in College Students
Clare M. Mehta & Jacqueline Alfonso & Rebecca Delaney &
Brian J. Ayotte
Published online: 18 December 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract We investigated the associations between same-
gender friendship, gender reference group identity, and sub-
stance use in college students (54 % male, M age=19.23,
SD =1.23) from the northeastern United States using an online
survey. Male students reported greater weekly marijuana, but
not alcohol use than female students. Regression analyses
revealed that having a greater proportion of same-gender
friendships was associated with greater weekly alcohol use
for male students and lesser weekly alcohol and marijuana use
for female students. Gender reference group identity was
negatively associated with weekly marijuana use for male
and female students. For female students, gender reference
group identity mediated the association between proportion of
same-gender friendships and weekly marijuana use. Our study
highlights the importance of considering the social context
(e.g., the gender of friends) and individual variables relating to
gender (e.g. gender reference group identity) in substance use
research. Our findings fit within social constructionist models
of social development that suggest participation in gendered
contexts (e.g., same-gender or other-gender-peer contexts)
over time cue gender-typed behaviors such as using
marijuana.
Keywords Gender segregation . Same-sex friendships .
Cross-sex friendships marijuana use . Alcohol use . Gender
identity . College students
Introduction
Research conducted in the United States of America (USA)
has suggested that throughout childhood and early adoles-
cence, boys engage in substance use behaviors to a greater
extent than girls (Bahr et al. 2005; Silverthorn and Frick
1999). In adolescence, however, the gender gap in substance
use behaviors begins to narrow (Dick et al. 2007; Silverthorn
and Frick 1999; Razzino et al. 2004). One reason for the
narrowing of this gender gap may be that in the USA, adoles-
cent boys and girls spend more time in mixed-gender peer
groups compared to when they were children (Monsour 2002;
Poulin and Pedersen 2007). As peers are believed to be one of
the most important factors in the development of substance
use behaviors (Bahr, et al. 2005; Dick et al. 2007: Gaughan
2006), the change in the gender composition of the peer group
from same-gender to mixed-gender during adolescence and
emerging adulthood may be a key determinant in male and
female college students’ drug use in the USA. The purpose of
this study is to extend the research on peer influence and
substance use by using regression models to examine how
same- and other-gender friendships and gender reference
group identity are related to substance use during emerging
adulthood in the USA. Although findings from the USA may
not generalize to other cultures, the prevalence of same-gender
over other-gender friendships appears to be culturally univer-
sal (Whiting and Edwards 1988). As such, an understanding
of the associations among same- and other-gender friendships,
gender reference group identity, and substance use in a sample
from the USA may inform similar research in other cultures.
Most of the existing literature on gender, friendships, and
C. M. Mehta (*)
Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Emmanuel
College, 400 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USA
e-mail: mehtac@emmanuel.edu
J. Alfonso
Emmanuel College, 400 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USA
R. Delaney
West Virginia University, 54 Campus Drive, Morgantown,
WV 26505, USA
B. J. Ayotte
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road,
North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109
DOI 10.1007/s11199-013-0334-8

2. substance use is based upon data collected using samples from
the United States or Canada (for example see Dick et al. 2007:
Gaughan 2006). Consequently, unless otherwise noted, liter-
ature cited in this paper is based upon studies conducted in
these countries.
The Development of Mixed-Gender Friendships
in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood
For both boys and girls, friendships during childhood and
preadolescence are largely segregated by gender (Mehta and
Strough 2010). During adolescence, hetero-normative expec-
tations regarding the formation of heterosexual romantic rela-
tionships lead to an increase in the amount of time spent with
other-gender peers (Bukowski et al. 1999; Mehta and Strough
2009; Poulin and Pedersen 2007). Thus, the proportion of
other-gender peers in male and female adolescent’s friendship
networks is greater than during childhood and preadolescence
(Poulin and Pedersen 2007; Strough and Covatto 2002). In
fact, by 12th-grade most adolescents report having at least one
other-gender friend (McDougall and Hymel 2007). The inte-
gration of other-gender friends into friendship networks con-
tinues through adolescence and into emerging adulthood
(Mehta and Strough 2009).
Emerging adulthood is the period of development from
ages 18–27 (Arnett 2000). Although some emerging adults
enter the workforce or armed services, many continue their
education in colleges and universities. In these settings, there
are ample opportunities for students to interact with same-age
peers of both genders in classes, dormitories, and during social
activities (Mehta and Strough 2009). For those who are het-
erosexual, other-gender friendships are common and dating
activity is frequent during this period (Monsour 2002; Wright
1989). Thus, the peer context during later adolescence and
emerging adulthood looks substantially different from the peer
context in childhood (Mehta and Strough 2009). Because of
the desire in adolescence and emerging adulthood to form
heterosexual romantic relationships, other-gender friends
may be particularly influential at this transitional developmen-
tal phase (Dick et al. 2007).
Mixed-Gender Friendships and Substance Use Behavior
Use of substances during adolescence has been well docu-
mented internationally. For example, The European School
Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, a cross-national
investigation of substance use patterns of 15- and 16-year-olds
in 36 European countries and the USA, found that the average
rate of alcohol use over the previous 30 days in European
countries was nearly double that of students from the USA.
Students from the USA, however, ranked first in marijuana
use, and third in illicit drug use (Hibell et al. 2012). The
Monitoring the Future (MTF) study by the National Institutes
of Health in the USA, has found that lifetime prevalence rates
for alcohol, marijuana and illicit drug use in 8th-, 10th- and
12th-grade students was 52 %, 31 %, and 35 %, respectively
(Johnston et al. 2012). Once adolescents living in the USA
transition into emerging adulthood the rate of current alcohol
use (defined as use in the last 30 days) climbs to 70 %, with
past month marijuana use at 19 % (Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration; SAMHSA 2012).
Some studies have posited that experimentation with sub-
stances may be a normative part of social development for
both genders (e.g., Arndorfer and Stormshak 2008; Schulte
et al. 2009). While national and international research provide
data suggesting that at least a third of adolescents have en-
gaged in substance use (Hibell et al. 2012; Johnston et al.
2012), gender differences exist when examining specific di-
mensions of such use. For example, although male and female
adolescents are equally likely to have experimented with
alcohol, male adolescents drink more often, more heavily,
and experience more alcohol-related problems than female
adolescents (Hummer et al. 2012; Huselid and Cooper 1994;
Schulte et al. 2009). Male adolescents also use a higher
quantity of drugs, use drugs more frequently, and tend to be
overrepresented among users of marijuana and hard drugs
(Kulis et al. 2002). The present study investigated gender
differences in weekly alcohol and marijuana use.
Researchers who adopt a social learning theory (SLT)
approach to the development of risk behaviors propose
that risk behaviors, such as substance use, are learned
from close associates (Akers 1998; Akers et al. 1979;
Steele et al. 2011; Sutherland 1939). The SLT approach
to risk behaviors was developed in sociology as an
expansion of Sutherland’s differential association theory
(Sutherland 1939). Research suggests that people are
more likely to engage in criminal behavior when they
associate with others who engage in and endorse crim-
inal behavior and when people perceive benefits and
limited costs of engaging in such behavior (Akers
1998; Sutherland 1939). SLT is widely supported in the
literature documenting how the peer group is significantly
related to adolescents’ substance use patterns (Dick et al.
2007; Gaughan 2006; Schulte et al. 2009). Only recently,
however, have researchers started investigating how the gen-
der composition of the peer group influences substance use
behaviors (Gaughan 2006; Poulin et al. 2011). As noted
above, during adolescence and emerging adulthood, friend-
ship groups are usually made up of both males and females
(Mehta and Strough 2009). It is during this same period that
women’s substance use behaviors increase, leading to a
narrowing of the gender gap in substance use behaviors
(Room 1996). Thus, it is plausible that for women, spending
time with other-gender peers (i.e., men) during adolescence
and emerging adulthood is associated with increased sub-
stance use behaviors during this period of development.
Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109 99

3. Along similar lines, research suggests that boys and men
influence girls’ and women’s attitudes and behaviors, but girls
and women do not influence boys’ and men’s attitudes and
behaviors (Gaughan 2006; Maccoby 1998). As such, boys and
men may exert a greater influence on the substance use
behaviors of girls and women. This is supported by empirical
work that finds adolescent girls who spend time with other-
gender peers are at increased risk for cigarette (Malow-Iroff
2006: Mrug et al. 2011), alcohol (Dick et al. 2007; Poulin et al.
2011), and marijuana use (Andrews et al. 2002; Bahr et al.
2005; Gaughan 2006). With regards to emerging adults, the
odds of binge drinking are higher for college women living in
mixed-gender dorms compared to those living in same-gender
dorms (Boyd et al. 2008).
While spending time with other-gender peers appears to be
risky for girls and women, spending time with same-gender
peers seems to protect girls and women from participating in
risk behaviors. Perhaps this is because girls and women en-
gage in less substance use behavior than boys and may be less
likely to encourage or condone drinking overall (Mrug et al.
2011). For boys and men, however, having same-gender
friendships may be more risky. Research investigating peer
influence on marijuana use found that over a 3-year assess-
ment period, college men’s marijuana use was similar to that
of their male friends (Andrews et al. 2002). It is possible that
increased use results from males who perceive more social
pressure from their same-gender peers to engage in substance
use behaviors (Mrug et al. 2011).
It is important to note that it is possible that emerging adult
women who use substances are more likely to develop friend-
ships with other-gender peers, and that emerging adult men
who use substances are more likely to develop relationships
with same-gender peers. Alternatively, both behaviors may
result from other common causes such as being in college
where substance use behavior is normative (Mrug et al. 2011).
Taken together, the above research suggests that having
other-gender friends for girls and women, and having same-
gender friends for boys and men increases substance use
behavior. In the present study, we investigated the associations
between emerging adults’ proportion of same-gender friends
and weekly alcohol and marijuana use.
Proportion of Same-Gender Friends, Gender Reference Group
Identity, and Substance Use
Gender reference group identity can be defined as the extent to
which a person identifies and psychologically connects with
his or her gender, feels a subjective sense of male/femaleness,
and feels his or her gender is a positive and central part of who
he or she is (Kulis et al. 2002; Michaelieu 1997; Wade 2008).
Research indicates that gender reference group identity is
associated with proportion of same-gender friends (Mehta
and Strough 2010). Associations between gender reference
group identity and the selection of same-gender peers could
reflect that peers have an influence in socializing gender
reference group identity (Carter 1987). Thus, predominantly
spending time with same-gender friends could result in a
greater sense of belongingness to that group. Over time, a
reciprocal process may emerge such that choosing same-
gender friends increases identification with others of the same
gender, which in turn strengthens the desire to spend time with
same-gender friends (Mehta and Strough 2010). Although
evidence suggests that gender reference group identity is
associated with the number of same-gender peers in a person’s
social network, the association between gender reference
group identity and substance use has yet to be investigated.
It is widely believed that those with more same-gender friends
are likely to exhibit greater gender-typed behaviors (Arndorfer
and Stormshak 2008; Martin and Fabes 2001; Rose and
Rudolph 2006). In his qualitative study of British undergrad-
uates, Dempster (2011) found that for men, male peer groups
played a role in the maintenance and reaffirmation of mascu-
line statuses. Qualitative research conducted in the USA (De
Visser and Smith 2007) and Great Britain (Dempster 2011)
found that college students believed that men and women who
used alcohol were more masculine than those who didn’t use
alcohol. This is supported by quantitative studies that suggest
that regardless of gender, those who identify as masculine are
more likely to engage in drinking behavior (Iwamoto and
Smiler 2013; Iwamoto et al. 2011; Peralta et al. 2010). As
such, male college students who strongly identify with other
men (i.e., their own-gender reference group) may use alcohol
and marijuana more than male college students who do not
strongly identify with other men. While masculinity is linked
with increased alcohol use, femininity is linked with de-
creased alcohol use in both men and women (Chomak and
Collins 1987; Huselid and Cooper 1994). If this is the case,
female college students who strongly identify with other
women (i.e. their own gender reference group) may use alco-
hol and marijuana less than female college students who do
not identify with or feel similar to other women.
If substance use behaviors are predominantly associated
with one gender, being socialized to identify with that partic-
ular gender within same- or other-gender peer groups may
lead to an increase in substance use behavior. In the present
study we investigated the associations between gender refer-
ence group identity and alcohol and/or marijuana use. We also
investigated whether having more same-gender friends for
men or more other-gender friends for women was associated
with increased substance use through the socialization of
gender reference group identity.
The Present Study
To review, the change in the gender composition of the peer
group from same- to mixed-gender during emerging
100 Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109

4. adulthood may influence male and female college students’
drug use by influencing emerging adults’ gender reference
group identity. Using the social-constructionist model of gen-
der development, which posits that gender typed behaviors
and characteristics (such as substance use and gender refer-
ence group identity) are cued by the gender of those in the
immediate context, and the available literature as our theoret-
ical foundation, we investigated the associations between the
gender composition of college student’s peer context, their
gender reference group identity, and their substance use be-
haviors. Given the compelling documented differences in the
rates of current alcohol (70 %) and marijuana (19 %) use
among emerging adults 18–25, analyses were conducted sep-
arately for alcohol and marijuana (SAMHSA 2012).
Hypotheses
Based on the social-constructionist model of gender develop-
ment and the research reviewed above, we hypothesized that:
(1) male college students would report greater weekly alcohol
and marijuana use than female college students. This hypoth-
esis is a predicted replication of earlier work. For female
college students we hypothesized that: (2) reporting a greater
proportion of same-gender than other-gender friends would be
negatively associated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use,
(3) gender reference group identity would be negatively asso-
ciated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use, and (4) gender
reference group identity would mediate the association be-
tween the proportion of same-gender friends and weekly
alcohol and marijuana use. Specifically, we hypothesized that
having a greater proportion of same-gender friends would be
associated with greater gender reference group identity which
in turn would be associated with greater weekly alcohol and/or
marijuana use for women. For male college students we
hypothesized that: (5) reporting a greater proportion of
same-gender friends would be positively associated with
weekly alcohol and marijuana use, (6) gender reference group
identity would be positively associated with weekly alcohol
and marijuana use, and (7) gender reference group identity
would mediate the association between the proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana use.
Specifically, we hypothesized that having a greater proportion
of same-gender friends would be associated with greater gen-
der reference group identity which in turn would be associated
with greater weekly alcohol and/or marijuana use for men.
Method
Participants
All students enrolled in introductory psychology classes (ap-
proximately 500) at a mid-sized regional university were
invited to participate in the study in exchange for course
credit. Data from a total of 254 students were analyzed (141
males, 113 females; 52 % male), aged 18–24 (Mage=
19.23 years, SD =1.23, Mage females=18.95 years, SD fe-
males=1.51, Mage males=18.98 years, SD males=1.37).
Overall, males reported significantly more alcohol and mari-
juana use, higher gender identity scores, and were significant-
ly more likely to be White compared to females (see Table 1
for significance tests). Additional descriptive statistics for the
sample can be found in Table 1.
Procedure
This study was approved by the college’s institutional review
board and adhered to the American Psychological Associa-
tion’s ethical standards (American Psychological Association
2002). Participants were recruited through an introductory
psychology class and received course credit for participation.
Measures included in the survey were taken from previous
research on same- and other-gender friendships and from the
NIH MTF study. All measures were completed online using
Survey Monkey and took approximately 40 min to complete.
Measures
Same and other-gender friendships
We assessed same- and other-gender friendships using an
unrestricted peer nomination measure (Mehta and Strough
2010). This measure asks participants to list the first and last
initials and gender of all their closest friends and to indicate
whether the friend is a friend from home or from school. We
then computed scores representing participants’ proportion of
same-gender friends by dividing the number of same-gender
friends nominated by the total number of friends nominated.
The average proportion of same-gender friends nominated by
participants was .70 (Males=.72, Females=.69).
Weekly alcohol use
A single item taken from the MTF study assessed current
weekly alcohol use. Participants were asked to report the
number of times a week, on average, they use alcohol. Males
reported using alcohol, on average, 1.55 times a week (Range
0–13). Females reported drinking alcohol, on average, 1.34
times per week (Range 0–5).
Weekly marijuana use
A single item taken from the MTF study assessed current
marijuana use. Participants were asked to report the number
of times on average they use marijuana per week. Males
reported using marijuana, on average, 6.23 times a week
Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109 101

5. (Range=0–42). Females reported using marijuana, on average
1.36 times per week (Range=0–14).
Gender reference group identity
A revised version of Michaelieu’s (1997) gender identity
subscale (six items) assessed participants’ affiliation with their
own gender. Females answered questions about their identifi-
cation with females, and males answered questions about their
identification with males using a 6-point Likert scale (1=
strongly disagree, 6=strongly agree). A sample item for fe-
males is “being female is an important part of my identity.” A
sample item for males is “being a male is an important part of
my identity.” In the present study Cronbach’s alpha was .70
for males and .81 for females.
Results
Data Analyses
Gender differences in weekly alcohol and marijuana use were
investigated using independent t-tests. Associations between
proportion of same-gender friends, weekly alcohol and mari-
juana use, and gender reference group identity were investi-
gated using linear regressions. Separate regressions were run
for men and women and for alcohol and marijuana. Results
can be found in Table 3 (female college students), and Table 4
(male college students). Variance Inflation Factor scores were
below 2.0 for all models suggesting that multicollinearity of
variables was not a problem. Correlations between all vari-
ables can be found in Table 2. Correlations for men and
women differed. As such we conducted Fishers R to Z anal-
yses to examine whether these differences were statistically
significant. There were significant differences in the correla-
tions between proportion of same gender friends and gender
reference group identity, z=−1.70, p =.01, weekly alcohol
use, z=−2.33, p =.02, and weekly marijuana use, z=3.82,
p =<.001,
Gender Differences in Weekly Alcohol and Marijuana Use
Hypothesis 1, that male college students would report greater
weekly alcohol and marijuana use than female college stu-
dents, was partially supported. Specifically, while there was
no significant difference in weekly alcohol use for men (M =
1.55, SD= 1.67) and women (M =1.34, SD= 1.45) t(223)=
1.01, p =. 82, men reported greater weekly marijuana use
(M =6.23, SD= 8.36) compared to women (M =1.36, SD=
2.75), t(189)=5.16, p <.001.
Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,
Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use
for Women
Hypothesis 2, that proportion of same-gender friends would
be negatively associated with greater weekly alcohol and
marijuana, and hypothesis 3, that gender reference group
Table 1 Descriptive statistics
Gender reference group identity
scored on a six-point Likert scale
(range=1.33–5.50; possible range
1–6). Higher scores represent
greater gender reference group
identity. Weekly substance use
scores represent participants’ self-
reported estimates of the frequen-
cy of use per week (range alco-
hol=0–13; range marijuana=0–
42). Age ranged from 18 to
23 years and proportion of same-
gender friends ranged from .00 to
1.00 (possible range .00–1.00)
Variable Gender Significance test
Male N= 139 Female N= 111
M SD M SD t (df) p
Age 19.09 1.20 19.32 1.10 .11 (249) .57
Proportion of same-gender friends .72 .19 .69 .20 1.37 (247) .22
Gender reference group identity 3.93 .58 3.53 1.06 3.59 (231) <.001
Weekly substance use
Alcohol 1.55 1.67 1.34 1.45 1.01 (223) .82
Marijuana 6.23 8.36 1.36 2.75 5.16 (189) <.001
n (%) n (%) χ2
(df) p
Race 13.72 (3) .01
White 117 (84.2) 76 (68.5)
Black/African American 7 (5.0) 18 (16.2)
Mixed 6 (4.3) 12 (10.8)
Other 9 (6.5) 5 (4.5)
Year in school .55 (3) .90
Freshman 82 (59.0) 67 (59.8)
Sophomore 38 (27.3) 29 (27.1)
Junior 16 (11.5) 10 (8.9)
Senior 3 (2.2) 5 (4.5)
102 Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109

6. identity would be negatively associated with greater weekly
alcohol and marijuana use, were tested using a linear regres-
sion (See Table 3). For marijuana use, results indicated that
having more same-gender friends and increased gender refer-
ence group identity were both associated with less use. For
alcohol use, having more same-gender friends was associated
with less use, while gender reference group identity was not
related to use.
Hypothesis 4, that the association between proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana use
would be mediated by gender reference group identity, was
tested using linear regressions (Baron and Kenny 1986) and
the Sobel test. First, we examined whether the association
between proportion of same-gender friends and weekly alco-
hol use was mediated by gender reference group identity for
women. In step 1 of the mediation model, weekly alcohol use
was regressed onto proportion of same-gender friends. The
association between proportion of same-gender friends and
weekly alcohol use was significant (β=−0.26, p =.009). In
step 2, weekly alcohol use was regressed on the mediator,
gender reference group identity. Results indicated that gender
reference group identity was not significantly related to alco-
hol use (β=−0.05, p =.62). As such, the requirements for
mediation were not met. This suggests that in our sample,
gender reference group identity did not mediate the relation-
ship between proportion of same-gender friends and weekly
alcohol use among female college students.
Next, we examined whether the association between
proportion of same-gender friends and weekly marijuana
use was mediated by gender reference group identity for
women. In step 1 of the mediation model, weekly
marijuana use was regressed onto proportion of same-
gender friends. The association between proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly marijuana use was sig-
nificant (β=−0.38, p >.001). In step 2, we found that
gender reference group identity was significantly related
to weekly marijuana use (β=−0.46, p <.001); In step 3,
weekly marijuana use was regressed onto proportion of
same-gender friends, controlling for the mediator, gen-
der identity. With gender identity in the model, the
significance of the association between proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly marijuana use was re-
duced but still significant (β=−0.24, p =.02), suggesting
partial mediation (see Fig. 1). A Sobel test confirmed
the hierarchical regression, suggesting that gender refer-
ence group identity partially mediated the association
between proportion of same-gender friends and weekly
marijuana use for women, Sobel=−2.42, p =.01.
Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,
Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use for Men
Hypothesis 5 that proportion of same-gender friends would be
positively associated with greater weekly alcohol and mari-
juana, and hypothesis 6, that gender reference group identity
would be positively associated with greater weekly alcohol
and marijuana use, were tested using a linear regression (See
Table 4). For marijuana use, results indicated that having more
same-gender friends was not associated with greater use.
However, lower gender reference group identity was associ-
ated with greater use. For alcohol use, having more same-
gender friends was associated with greater use, while gender
reference group identity was not related to use.
Hypothesis 7, that the association between proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana use
would be mediated by gender reference group identity was not
supported. According to our results, the requirements for
mediation were not met for either weekly alcohol use or
weekly marijuana use (Baron and Kenny 1986). This suggests
that in our sample, gender reference group identity did not
mediate the relationship between proportion of same-gender
friends and weekly alcohol use among male college students.
Table 3 Predictors of self-re-
ported weekly alcohol and mari-
juana use in female college
students
*p <.05, ** p <.01
Variables Self-reported weekly alcohol use Self-reported weekly marijuana use
B SE B β B SE B β
Proportion of same-gender friends −1.83 .68 −0.26** −5.10 1.36 −0.38**
Gender reference group identity −0.07 .15 .05 −1.16 .25 −0.46**
Total R2
.07* .26**
Total F (2,95)=3.50, p =.03 (2,82)=14.32, p =<.001
Table 2 Correlations between all variables
Variable 1 2 3 4
1. Proportion of same-gender friends – .31* −.26** −.38*
2. Gender reference group identity .10 – −.05 −.46**
3. Weekly alcohol use .31** .08 – .18
4. Weekly marijuana use .17 .27** .05 –
Correlations for women are provided above the diagonal, correlations for
men are below the diagonal
* p =<.01, ** p =<.000
Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109 103

7. Discussion
Our results indicated that male college students reported
greater weekly marijuana use, but not alcohol use, than female
college students. We also found that proportion of same-
gender friends was differentially associated with substance
use for males and females. For males, the correlations between
proportion of same-gender friends and alcohol use were stron-
ger than for females, and reporting more same-gender friends
was positively associated with weekly alcohol use. However,
for females, reporting more same-gender friends was nega-
tively associated with weekly marijuana and alcohol use.
Correlations between proportion of same-gender friends and
marijuana use were stronger for women than men. For males
and females, greater gender reference group identity was
negatively associated with weekly marijuana use, but was
not associated with weekly alcohol use. Correlations between
proportion of same-gender friends and gender reference group
identity were stronger for females than males. Finally, our
results suggested that gender reference group identity mediat-
ed the association between the proportion of same-gender
friends and weekly marijuana use in females but not for males.
Gender Differences in Weekly Alcohol and Marijuana Use
We hypothesized that male college students would report
greater weekly alcohol and marijuana use than female college
students. This hypothesis was partially supported. Male stu-
dents did not report greater weekly alcohol use than female
students, but did report greater weekly marijuana use. That
there was no significant difference in college men and
women’s weekly alcohol use in our sample supports research
that suggests the gender gap in alcohol use is closing (Capraro
2000; Dick et al. 2007; Silverthorn and Frick 1999). Hoeppner
and colleagues found that college women exceeded the Na-
tional Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism’s (NIAAA)
guidelines for weekly drinking limits, and that women were
no different from men on exceeding daily consumption limits
(Hoeppner et al. 2013). Additionally, national survey data
from the USA support the narrowing of the gender gap in
alcohol use in those aged 12–20, with males’ reported current
alcohol use rate at 25.6 %, and female use at 24.6 %
(SAMHSA 2012).
Although there were no significant gender differences
in weekly alcohol use, as hypothesized, male college
students reported greater weekly marijuana use than
female college students. This fits with research that
has suggested that males are heavier substance users
(Hummer et al. 2012; Mullen et al. 2007; Schulte
et al. 2009). It could be that while both males and
females engage in drug experimentation and use alco-
hol, males engage in behaviors more indicative of prob-
lem substance use, such as using illicit drugs and using
drugs more frequently (i.e., more times per week).
-.38**, (-.24*)
.31**
.46**
Gender Reference Group
Identity
Weekly Marijuana UseProportion of Same-Gender
Friends
Fig. 1 Standardized regression coefficients for the association between
proportion of same-gender friends and weekly marijuana use in female
college students as mediated by gender reference group identity. The
standardized regression coefficient between proportion of same-gender
friends and weekly marijuana use with gender reference group identity in
the model is in parentheses. A significant Sobel test indicated that gender
reference group identity mediated the association between proportion of
same-gender friends and weekly marijuana use (Sobel=−2.42, p =.01)
*p <.05, ** p <.001
Table 4 Predictors of self-reported weekly alcohol and marijuana use in male college students
Variables Self-reported weekly alcohol use Self-reported weekly marijuana use
B SE B β B SE B β
Proportion of same-gender friends 2.65 .72 .30* 7.25 4.12 .17
Gender reference group identity .23 .28 .08 −4.44 1.66 −0.27**
Total R2
.08** .10**
Total F (2,115)=5.03, p =.008 (2,94)=5.12, p =.008
*p <.05, ** p <.01
104 Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109

8. Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,
Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use
for Women
Because marijuana and alcohol use are typically believed to be
masculine behaviors, we hypothesized that females with a
greater proportion of other-gender friends in their friendship
network would report greater weekly alcohol and marijuana use
than those with a greater proportion of same-gender friends in
their friendship network. We predicted this in part because
females with fewer other-gender friends would be less likely
to be exposed to peers (i.e., males) who engage in greater
substance use. This fits with SLT explanations of deviant be-
havior (Akers 1998; Peralta and Steele 2010; Steele et al. 2011;
Sutherland 1939). This hypothesis was supported. College-
aged females with more other-gender friends in their friendship
networks reported greater weekly marijuana and alcohol use
than those with more same-gender friends in their peer net-
works. This finding is consistent with previous research that
suggests that for adolescent girls, having more other-gender
friends is associated with increased substance use (Bahr et al.
2005; Gaughan 2006; Poulin et al. 2011). There are several
possible explanations for this finding. First, research looking at
friendships and alcohol use suggests that students who drink
heavily select friends who also drink heavily (Knecht et al.
2011). It could be that female college students who are frequent
users of alcohol and marijuana select male friends based on the
belief that males use these substances to a greater extent than
females. Alternatively, female college students with other-
gender friends may be more likely to use alcohol and marijuana.
This explanation is consistent with peer influence and SLT
models that emphasize the significant impact of peers on ado-
lescents’ substance use behavior patterns (Akers 1998; Dick
et al. 2007; Gaughan 2006). It could also be that both having
other-gender friendships and using alcohol and marijuana are
influenced by a third variable, such as being in college or
gender reference group identity.
Gender reference group identity has not previously been
investigated in conjunction with substance use. However,
research investigating stereotypical gender-typed traits and
substance use does indicate that there is an association be-
tween femininity/expressivity and alcohol use (Chomak and
Collins 1987; Huselid and Cooper 1992). As such, we hy-
pothesized that gender reference group identity would be
associated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use. In our
sample, we found that gender reference group identity was
not associated with women’s weekly alcohol use, but was
associated with women’s weekly marijuana use. That gender
reference group identity was not associated with women’s
weekly alcohol use could be because of the prevalence of
alcohol use among women attending college. As the present
study and others suggest, the gender gap in alcohol use is
narrowing (Capraro 2000; Dick et al. 2007; SAMHSA 2012;
Silverthorn and Frick 1999). As alcohol use becomes norma-
tive for women in college, identifying with others of the same
gender may not be protective against alcohol use.
Although gender reference group identity was not associ-
ated with weekly alcohol use it was negatively associated with
weekly marijuana use. This indicates that the more women
identified with and felt a psychological connection to their
own gender, the less frequently they used marijuana. Unlike
alcohol, these findings suggest that identifying with others of
the same gender may protect against marijuana use in female
college students.
Although having more same-gender friends is associated
with substance use (Poulin et al. 2011), little is known about
the potential mechanism for this association, particularly among
emerging adults. Because both proportion of same-gender
friends and gender reference group identity were associated
with weekly marijuana use in female college students, we tested
a mediation model with gender reference group identity as a
mediator of proportion of same-gender friends and weekly
marijuana use. We hypothesized that having a greater propor-
tion of same gender friends would be associated with greater
gender reference group identity, which in turn, would be asso-
ciated with greater marijuana use. We found that gender refer-
ence group identity accounted for a significant amount of the
variance in the association between proportion of same-gender
friends and weekly marijuana use. Specifically, our results
suggest that among female college students gender reference
group identity mediates the association between proportion of
same-gender friends and substance use. Having more same-
gender friendships may socialize gender reference group iden-
tity, which may then reduce the likelihood of female college
students using marijuana. These findings fit with social con-
structionist models of social development (see Deaux and
Major 1987) that suggest that participation in gendered contexts
(e.g., same-gender or other-gender peer contexts) over time cue
gender-typed behaviors (e.g., using alcohol and/or marijuana).
Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,
Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use for Men
As noted above, alcohol and marijuana use are typically
believed to be masculine behaviors. We expected that men
with more same-gender friends in their friendship network
would report greater weekly alcohol and marijuana use than
those with fewer same-gender friends in their friendship net-
works. This hypothesis was partially supported. Specifically,
we found that men who reported a greater proportion of same-
gender friends reported greater weekly alcohol, but not mar-
ijuana use. Men with more same- than other-gender friends in
their social network may report greater weekly alcohol use
because of perceived social pressure from their same-gender
peers to engage in substance use behaviors (Mrug et al. 2011).
This supports SLT models that propose that peers have a
Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109 105

9. substantial influence on adolescents’ substance use behavior
patterns (Akers 1998; Dick et al. 2007; Schulte et al. 2009).
Research from the United Kingdom suggests that masculinity
is often enacted in males’ same-gender peer groups (Dempster
2011). If alcohol use is a masculine behavior enacted with in
men’s same-gender peer groups, it follows that men who
spend more time with other men use alcohol to a greater
extent. As with female college students, there are alternative
explanations for this finding. First, research looking at friend-
ships and alcohol use suggests that students who drink heavily
select friends who also drink heavily (Knecht et al. 2011). It
could be that male college students who are frequent users of
alcohol select same-gender friends based on the belief that
men use alcohol more than women. It could also be that male
college students with same-gender friends may be more likely
to use substances. Finally, it could also be that having both
other-gender friendships and using alcohol and marijuana are
influenced by a third variable, such as being in college where
substance use behavior is normative (Mrug et al. 2011), or
identifying with others of the same gender.
Research indicates that college men’s marijuana use is sim-
ilar to their male friends’ use (Andrews et al. 2002). However,
our hypothesis that college men with a greater proportion of
same gender friends would report greater weekly marijuana use
was not supported. This finding suggests that although college
men’s marijuana use may be similar to that of their friends,
having more male than female friends is not associated with an
increase (or decrease) in weekly marijuana use.
We hypothesized that gender reference group identity
would be associated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use
in men. Gender reference group identity was not associated
with weekly alcohol use in male college students. While
gender reference group identity may be a component of mas-
culinity, it may not be associated with correlates of masculin-
ity such as alcohol use because it is an internal rather than
external component of gender. Specifically, having an internal
sense of belonging and connection with those of the same
gender does not necessary require a person to publicly enact
stereotypically masculine behaviors such as alcohol use.
Contrary to our prediction, gender reference group identity
was negatively associated with weekly marijuana use in male
college students. That gender reference group identity was
negatively associated with weekly marijuana use is inconsistent
with previous research that has found positive associations
between substance use and masculinity (Iwamoto and Smiler
2013; Kulis et al. 2002). One possible explanation of this finding
is that males who identify less with their gender reference-group
experience gender-role stress. Gender-role stress occurs when
people feel as though they are failing to live up to socially
sanctioned gender scripts (Copenhaver and Eisler 1996), and
is associated with substance use (Capraro 2000; Monk and
Ricciardelli 2003). Gender-role stress may lead to substance
use for two different reasons. First, a male experiencing
gender-role stress may “self-medicate” by using marijuana to
cope (Courtenay 2000; Monk and Ricciardelli 2003). Second, a
male experiencing gender-role stress may use marijuana in an
attempt to demonstrate their masculinity. Research suggests that
men who feel inadequate about their masculinity drink alcohol
to excess to enhance their masculine status (Dempster 2011; De
Visser and Smith 2007; Iwamoto et al. 2011; Peralta 2007).
Alternatively, gender reference group identity and weekly
marijuana use could be negatively associated because smoking
marijuana may be a less masculine behavior than drinking
alcohol. This could also explain why proportion of same-
gender friends was not associated with weekly marijuana use.
Among teenage males, traditional masculinity was found to
contribute to heavy drinking but not marijuana use (Lye and
Waldron 1998). The finding that gender reference group identity
was negatively related to weekly marijuana use for male college
students fits with popular stereotypes and media representations
of male marijuana users as “laid back” and non-aggressive.
Limitations and Future Directions
When interpreting the results of the current study, the follow-
ing limitations should be taken into consideration. First, our
sample was relatively small, and because of this we may not
have had enough statistical power to detect associations be-
tween variables. However, our results contribute to the litera-
ture by proposing a mechanism through which the gender of
friends may influence substance use. Second, similar to many
studies on both friendships and substance use, we rely on self-
report measures. These reports may not accurately reflect
college student’s actual weekly marijuana and alcohol use as
they may over or underestimate their weekly substance use. It
is likely that college students, especially heavy substance
users, forget the number of times they typically use alcohol
or marijuana in a given week. In addition, the same- and other-
gender friendship measure may not accurately capture the
number of same- and other-gender friends with whom college
students spend time. College students may nominate friends
who they rarely see, or with whom they are not very close. To
address both of these issues, future research could use mo-
mentary sampling methodology that allows for real-time
reporting of both social context and substance use. Third,
our data is cross-sectional and did not benefit from a random
sampling method; as such, we cannot determine whether a
person’s proportion of same-gender friends or gender identity
influence substance use, or if substance use influences a
person’s proportion of same-gender friends and gender iden-
tity. It will be important for future studies to employ a longi-
tudinal design that will help us elucidate the direction of these
associations. Fourth, although we were interested in investi-
gating same-and other- gender friendships, gender identity,
and substance use in college students due to the higher rate of
substance use in college (versus non-college emerging adults),
106 Sex Roles (2014) 70:98–109

10. our findings may not generalize to those who choose not to
pursue a higher education. It is also important to note that
participants were recruited from an introductory psychology
class, and as such are primarily first year students. Our find-
ings therefore may not generalize to other college students.
Future research should investigate friendships, gender identi-
ty, and substance use in emerging adults who are further along
in their college careers and who are in the workforce, where
drinking and drug use may be less normative. Fifth, although
sexual orientation was assessed, we did not manage to recruit
enough sexual minorities to be able to examine how the
associations between same-and other gender friends, gender
identity, and substance use are similar differ in non-
heterosexual college students. Those who identify as gay or
lesbian may have more other-gender friends than heterosex-
uals (Diamond and Dubé 2002) and may be more likely to
engage in substance use (Marshal et al. 2008).
Conclusion
Our study highlights the importance of including the gender of
peers when conducting research or developing theoretical
models of peer networks and substance use in college students.
Interventions targeting substance use behaviors in college stu-
dents should not only consider the gender composition of stu-
dent’s social networks, but should also include peers in inter-
vention efforts, as peers may be more effective at limiting drug
use than authority figures (Andrews et al. 2002; Room 1996).
Our study also highlights the importance of moving beyond
binary gender measures to consider socialized gender, such as
gender reference group identity, when looking for gender dif-
ferences in substance use behaviors. Our findings also provide
potential avenues for substance use interventions. For male
college students who identify as masculine, interventions that
encourage healthy masculine behaviors such as engaging in
athletic activities and sports may provide an alternative for
substance use as a way for constructing masculine identities
(De Visser and Smith 2007). For female college students,
interventions that promote internal feelings of connection with
one’s gender, as well as increased opportunities to socialize
with same-gender peers, may help reduce substance use.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the two anony-
mous reviewers who provided feedback on earlier versions of this man-
uscript. We would also like to thank Grant Kuehl, Kelly R. Smith, and
Danielle Rose for their comments.
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