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data communication impulse noise) 9: signal-to-noise ratio (snr) crosstalk induced noise causes of transmission impairment 3: attenuation 4 transmission impairment throughput relationship we use the term bandwidth in two contexts. in networking relationship and in networking bandwidth in bits per seconds bandwidth in hertz bandwidth network performance performance (network performance) : noisy channel: shannon capacity noiseless channel: nyquist bit rate data rate limits: pcm pulse code modulation quantization levels flat top sampling natural sampling ideal sampling encoding quantization sampling analog digital to conversion digital transmission networks the internet frequency ranges in internet frequency ranges hierarchy in internet internet today osi reference model classification of lan de jure standards de facto standards standards protocols internets network