1. The
Influence
of
Wolof
Rhythmic
Tradition
and
Culture
in
Rap
Music
By
Carlotta
Naima
Adams
Extended Essay
Music
St. Stephen’s School of Rome
May 2015
Candidate 0000610001
Advisor: Mr. Richard
Trythall
Word Count: 3971

2. 2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to explore the influence of the Wolof culture and
rhythmic tradition on the rhythm in rap music. I want to outline the impact of the
sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, prominent in Wolof music, on the rhythm
behind the rap genre, and evaluate how similar they are.
The first part of this essay focuses on the historical context of the Wolof culture and
rhythmic tradition: who they were, what their music comprised of, who were the
musicians in their communities, etc. I then go on to compare the griots, the praise-
singers of the Wolof community, to the modern-day rappers, in terms of their styles,
the rhythms they adopt, the instrumentation of their pieces, and their role in society.
The third part of this investigation focuses on two specific sabar rhythms, prominent
in Wolof music, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, where I analyze the individual rhythms of
each of the instruments. The fourth area of this investigation focuses on the analysis
of three rap songs, “Push It Along” by A Tribe Called Quest, “Changes” by Tupac
Shakur, and “In Da Club” by 50 Cent. I examine their rhythms, and compare and
contrast them to the sabar rhythms evaluated earlier.
This research shows that these sabar rhythms did influence rap rhythm greatly, both
in the drum’s rhythm and the rapper’s lyrical rhythm. As rap music evolved, each
rapper found his or her own unique style, slowly moving farther and farther away
from the original, sabar flavor of the beat. The Wolof rhythmic tradition is an
example of the general African rhythmic practices, but more advanced, and has
definitely been influential in the formation of the rap genre.
Word Count: 287

3. 3
Table
of
Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………………………...pg.4
The Wolof Culture and Rhythmic Tradition…………………………………….…pg.4
Griots and Modern-Day Rappers: Similarities and Differences…………………...pg.6
Sabar Rhythms in Rap Music……………………………………………………...pg.8
Analyzing two sabar rhythms: Kaolack and Ceebu jën……………...........pg.8
An Analysis of the Rhythm in “Push It Along” by A Tribe Called Quest..pg.12
An Analysis of the Rhythm in “Changes” by Tupac Shakur……………..pg.13
An Analysis of the Rhythm in “In Da Club” by 50 Cent………………....pg.14
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...pg.15
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………pg.16
Appendix………………………………………………………………………….pg.18

4. 4
Introduction
When rap was first created, there was a general disproval of it. It was an underground
music genre that was not being recognized as real music by the white society of the
late 70’s because its most predominant element was rhythm, and people were not used
to hearing it. Nevertheless, rap is so much more than just “rhythm”; it is the act of
telling a story, expressing yourself and allowing your soul to follow the beat. I have
always been interested in rap music and its rhythm, and as an aspiring drummer, I
have chosen to explore the beat behind rap music. During one of our school
assemblies, an African drumming group performed rhythms from Senegal that
sounded very similar to those in rap songs. What if there is a relationship between
these Senegalese rhythms and the rhythms in rap music? With this question in mind, I
decided that I would explore the correlation between the two. My aim in this work
will be to show
how the sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, two prominent
Senegalese rhythms, influenced the rhythm behind the rap genre.
The
Wolof
Culture
and
Rhythmic
Tradition
It is common knowledge that the most renowned instrument in Africa is the drum.
The drum is not only an instrument in Africa, but also a way of life, though different
for each village or tribe. Anthony B. Pinn notes in his work, Noise and Spirit: The
Religious and Spiritual Sensibilities of Rap Music, that the “dense configurations of
independent, but closely related, rhythms, harmonic and non-harmonic percussive
sounds, especially drum sounds, are critical priorities in many African… musical
practices” (pg. 112). Furthermore, drums are often considered sacred in African
communities: some are brought on special occasions because of their value and others
are used to accompany the everyday activities in the village. Drums are almost
personified and treated as members of the community. The African people believed
that all African drums could “speak”: the rhythms played upon them were imitative of
the human voice. The drum spoke the language of the drummer and anyone who
spoke the drummer’s language would be able to understand the drum’s voice (Finn,
pg. 86).

5. 5
For this specific investigation, the focus is going to be on a particular ethnic group
from Senegal called Wolof. The Wolof people are known for their ability as
drummers and bards, who carry on the West African oral tradition. Oral tradition
amongst the Wolof people is comprised of two important elements, much like rap
music or today: a beat and a voice. The beat is often times supplied by the sabar
drum. Adam Novick states in his article, “Sabar: Puzzling Drumming from Senegal”,
that “the term sabar not only refers to the specific type of drum1
, but also to the music
played on them and the dance that accompanies them and the gathering to dance”
(Novick). It can also be referred to as a genre of music within the Senegalese region.
There are a couple of important characteristics in Wolof drumming to take note of.
First of all, the dominant bass beat always anticipates the backbeat2
. The anticipation
varies according to the rhythm that is being played but it is important to note that this
anticipation keeps the rhythm dynamic and interesting over the long run. Since the
music is solely comprised of percussion instruments, it is important to keep the
rhythm as interesting and as entertaining as possible. It must also be kept very lively
due to the fact that the rhythms are accompanying dancers. The second characteristic
is that the sabar rhythms are highly syncopated3
. The syncopation often times is so
strong that is makes it harder for the dancers to keep up with the beat. The third
characteristic is that the rhythm is always based on a meter of four-beats. In this way
they keep the rhythm organized, but with the help of polyrhythms, complex enough to
seem odd-metered or in compound time (Novick).
It is important to note that these rhythms are not written down, as they would be in the
Western world. The rhythms are passed down from generation to generation and
shared within the communities and between villages and tribes. There is no clear
notation for these rhythms or simplistic way of putting them down on paper. The
specialty of these rhythms is that, although they are not written down, the way they
1
Sabar drums are the traditional drums of the Wolof people and are often times carved out of
mahogany or mango wood. The shell of the drum is elongated and can either have an hourglass or
cylinder shape. Both ends of the drum are covered in goatskin. Wooden pegs circle the head of the
drum to serve as tuning devices. The goatskin is attached to the pegs and in order to tighten or tune the
drum, the pegs need only be driven further into the body of the drum. It is a generally small drum and
is considered a hand drum (Dr.Tom). It is not a solo instrument, so often times it will be accompanied
by other hand drums or simply larger, bass drums, like the djembe or congas.
2
In a 4/4 time signature, the backbeat would be considered the second and the fourth beat.
3
Syncopation is the incorporation of rhythmic accents on specific beats that wouldn’t occur naturally.

6. 6
are played is unique. Western music has been documented using the traditional
western notation since 1000 A.D. and, as long as it is written down, anyone with a
background in music theory could play it; however, if these rhythms were to be
written down according to western notation, the same would not apply. African
musicians must play African music because otherwise the same flavor and groove is
not delivered.
Griots
and
Modern-­‐Day
Rappers:
Similarities
and
Differences
As previously mentioned, the Wolof music is comprised of two specific elements: the
beat and the voice. In his book, Hip Hop Africa: New African Music in a Globalizing
World, Eric Charry states that a griot is “best known as a hereditary artisan of the
spoken word, who also specialized in a variety of musical instruments” (pg. 79-80).
Griot is a common term for storyteller and musician in the western region of Africa.
They are praise-singers and hold an esteemed position in the social caste system.
They had an incredible gift for storytelling and were known as “purveyors of
knowledge” because of their ability to memorize entire family lineages and historical
tribal events. The griots would travel from tribe to tribe recounting the stories of the
great kings and would promulgate information all around the western region. Each
ethnic group has its own way of calling their griots and a signature instrument that
represents their ethnic group. As seen, the sabar drum represents the Wolof musicians
and, in addition to that, their griots are called géwëls. It is important to note that not
just anybody from the community can become a griot. It is a position of honor that is
passed down from generation to generation (Khameneh).
Now that we’ve finally explored in depth the meaning of griots, who they were and
what their role was in West African communities, I will compare and contrast the two
similar figures of the griot, in particular the Senegalese géwëls, and the rappers of
America. Historically, both figures were considered storytellers. They were there to
share stories about their culture, the environment in which they live, and anecdotes
from the history of their people, all elements that would shed light on their respective
realities. Due to this, often griots were referred to as historians and rappers were

7. 7
referred to as the “black CNN” because of their ability to tell America what was going
on in the ghetto, what was going on around them. Also, they were both very
“linguistically and lyrically fluent” (Khameneh), in the sense that they would know
how to appropriately space each word or phrase in order to emphasize its meaning.
Their way of narrating or rapping needed to be systematic and entertaining at the
same time because their main goal is to get the story across and to do that they must
keep the beat and match their lyrics to the rhythm, making it easy to follow. To
explore the concept of merging rhythm with language, I will need to define taasu4
.
Charry defines taasu as “a traditional Senegalese Wolof style of rhythmic poetry,
involving the declamation of heightened rhythmic speech over accompanying
percussion” (pg. 85). This style of speech is very similar to the standard griot “praise-
singing”, yet instead of focusing on a strict form, most of the poems written are
improvised. With all this being said, it is important to keep in mind that taasu has
existed long before American rap, and it is hypothesized that the latter is an evolution
of the former; however, there are many rhythmic verbal forms existent in Africa and
that taasu may have just been one of the many to influence the new genre.
What is “flow”? In his journal article, The Aesthetics of Rap, Mtume ya Salaam
defines flow as what “describes a rapper’s sense of rhythm and timing […] Rap lyrics
are delivered in a rhythmic cadence, not simply recited or melodically half-sung. The
quality of the rhythmic delivery is what defines flow. A rapper with good lyrics and
style who can’t flow is like a singer with a good voice and a well-written song who
ignores the melody. When the rapper flows, the lyrics blend into a continuous melodic
line like the flow of notes from a jazz soloist’s horn.” (306) This is an essential part of
being a great storyteller because by following this structure, one can create a sound.
This sound will then be what allows one to stand out in a crowd, along with creativity,
sincerity, originality, style5
, and thought-provoking lyrics. Improvisational skills and
“free style” also played an enormous part in the one’s credibility as a rapper. Rappers
needed, at least originally, to know how to address an issue and express their thoughts
on the spot, and based on how well they performed, they would be able to gain “street
4
The Wolof word taas is a verb, which indicates “to praise” or “to bless”.
5
Refers both to the tonal quality in a rapper’s vocals and to the level of originality in presentation and
delivery (ya Salaam, 305).

8. 8
cred”, or street credibility.6
This ties into the theme of their craft. Both griots and
rappers use their skills to comment upon social issues; the formers use proverbs and
words of wisdom that would serves as advice in specific situations, whereas the latters
use metaphors or simply state the facts explicitly.
There is no doubt that these two figures hold similar characteristics, but their function
within society stops being alike after their roles as storytellers. First of all, griots hold
an esteemed position within their society. They worked for the king and almost acted
as personal “praisers”. The griots would recount anecdotes and stories from the past,
but these would all be very biased towards the view of the king. They would not
recount anything that went against their employer and often spent their time
glorifying and praising him. Therefore, they treated their griot lineage as more of a
job than a desire to voice something. Rappers are the exact opposite in this sense. The
rest of white America did not take them seriously, and it wasn’t until much later that
record labels started to understand the true value of rap music. Despite this, their
music was born from their desire to voice their opinion and rebel against power and
injustice. They were fighting for their people and trying to be heard by the figures of
power.
Sabar
Rhythms
in
Rap
Music
Analyzing
two
sabar
rhythms:
Kaolack
and
Ceebu
jën
When evaluating how a specific rhythm influences a whole genre and the beat behind
it, it is not possible to compare two musical pieces, as one would do if comparing
various elements within the work. Since, the purpose of this essay is to show the
similarities between rhythms contained in Senegalese music and rhythms contained in
American rap, I have decided to analyze two prominent rhythms in the Wolof
community, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, and compare them to the rhythms in three rap
songs: “Push It Along” (1990) by A Tribe Called Quest, “Changes” (1998) by Tupac
Shakur, and “In Da Club” (2003) by 50 Cent. The reason I have chosen these three
songs is because they are representative of three different stages of the rap scene, and
6
A level of respect earned by experience or capabilities. It is another way of referring to one’s
reputation in the urban environment.

9. 9
each of them shows an evolution from the previous forms of rap, in terms of the
context and the addition of different musical elements (melody, harmony, drum
machines, etc.); however, in all of these tracks, rhythm is prominent and dominates
over the riffs each piece contains.
Primarily, I will be presenting the two, sabar rhythms. The first of the two, Kaolack,
named after the region in which it was created, is one of the most important rhythms
because it is often used in musique, which is the Wolof term for popular music, also
known as mbalax7
music (Tang, Ch. 5) It is the rhythm most known amongst the
people of Senegal because it is the basis for all dance music. Because it is the primary
rhythmic accompaniment, it is the rhythm onto which many bàkks overlay. These
bàkks are musical phrases that overlap short rhythms and are fundamental in Wolof
music. They can differ from family to family and often serve to distinguish the one
percussionist from another. 8
With this in mind, another parallel could be drawn between the griot and sabar
culture, and the rap culture. The families of the rap culture could be seen as the rap
groups and gangs that formed during the creation of this genre. There are different
sub-genres within rap (old school, new school, east coast hip hop, west coast hip hop,
gangsta rap, etc.) and each of them have a signature style and groove to them, just like
the griot families do. There is also this notion of “rap-battles”, which occur when two
rappers challenge each other to come up with the best freestyle, and try to do so by
“outdoing” one another.
7
In the sabar dictionary, it literally means “accompaniment”; however it is also used to refer to the
popular music genre in Senegal, made famous by Youssou N’Dour (Tang, Ch. 5).
8
“Because each family has its own repertory, it develops its own bàkks that become signifiers
or markers of that particular family’s identity. Géwël percussionists are always listening to what
other sabar groups are doing – what bàkks they play, etc. In this way, there is friendly
competition that involves building on one another’s bàkks, trying to be innovative, and trying in
some way to “outdo” one another in the quality of a bàkk – its catchiness, as well as its
virtuosity.” (Tang, Ch. 5)

10. 10
Figure 1. A form of the Kaolack rhythm
Transcription by Patricia Tang (Ch. 5)
The example above shows one of the many variants of the Kaolack rhythm. It is in
common time (4/4) and the tempo indicated is approximately 144bpm. At a fast
tempo, the rhythms above create a strong impression of perpetual motion that keeps
the music driving forward. The four staves represent the voices of the rhythm, played
by drums that produce different sounds. The Tulli drum is somewhat of a bass drum
and its voice is composed of a 16-beat cycle that is heavily syncopated. The two
variants of Mbalax could be considered the “snare drums” of the western world drum
set. They both play nearly the same musical phrases. Each phrase is divided into two
8-beat cycles that show the 3+3+2 form of additive rhythm. The Talmbat is the tenor
drum and its voice contrasts the rest, forming a polyrhythm and a more complex
structure. By looking closely at the example, it is clear that the syllables transcribed
correspond to specific tones. These symbols also indicate how the sound is produced,
so where and in what way the drum is hit to create that specific tone. Here, pax is the
highest tone played and gin the lowest, bass tone. In her book, Masters of Sabar:
Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal, Patricia Tang refers to pax when “the left hand
strikes the edge of the drumhead, primarily with the fingertip pads, and the hand is
left there, creating a sharp, slap-like sound” and to gin as the sound created when “the
left hand strikes the center of the drum, creating a resonant bass sound” (Ch. 5).
Based on where these tones are played in all four voices, pax on the 1st
and 3rd
beats,
and gin on the 2nd
and 4th
beats, it could be said that the accents fall on the 2nd
and 4th
beat, because gin is the bass sound that keeps the rhythm in time. This, however, is

11. 11
only speculation based on the given score. These instruments together form the
backbone rhythm, so that other instruments or voices can improvise and add a second
layer on top of it.
The second sabar rhythm I will be exploring is the Ceebu Jën rhythm, named after
the national dish of Senegal: fish and rice. It is considered one of the hardest rhythms
to play because of the complex rhythmic pattern, but also the fast tempo of
approximately 154bpm. The fast tempo shapes and gives energy to the music; for this
reason, most of these rhythms pushed people to get up and move. The overall Ceebu
Jën rhythm is in cut time (2/4), but contains two measures, instead of one, as did the
Kaolack rhythm.
Figure 2. A form of the Ceebu Jën rhythm
Transcription by Patricia Tang (Ch. 5)
The example above depicts the standard form of a Ceebu Jën rhythm, which, in
structure, is very similar to the Kaolack rhythm observed earlier. It is composed of
four voices: the Tulli (bass voice), the Talmbat (tenor voice), and two Mbalax variants
(snare drums). The Tulli drum’s voice, like its voice in the Kaolack rhythm, is
composed of a 16-beat cycle that is heavily syncopated. In this rhythm, the two
variants of Mbalax play two entirely different musical phrases. The Mbalax Nder
voice is composed of two 8-beat cycles that show the 2+3+3 form of additive
rhythms, essentially the inverse of the previously explored Mbalax voices. The

12. 12
Mbalax voice, on the other hand, is composed of a simple additive rhythm that
emphasizes each beat of the cycle. The tenor drum presents a completely different
voice that is composed of two 8-beat cycles, which contrast the other voices, creating
a polyrhythm. Based on where the placement of the syllable gin, the bass tone, in all
four staves, it could be said that the accents are located on the 2nd
and 4th
beat.
Both Senegalese music and rap music consists of two or more different rhythmically
functional levels. The first level is composed by a simple, short, fixed rhythm that
persists throughout the entire length of the piece. This repetition and continuity of a
single musical phrase is known as the ostinato. The second level is composed of a
variable rhythm that continuously changes throughout the piece, usually carried by a
musician or a solo drum. The overlapping of these two different sections sometimes
creates a phenomenon known as polyrhythm. In the sabar music, the variable section
can be represented either by taasu, which I described earlier, or a simple drum solo
that is elaborated and expanded upon throughout the piece. In rap music, the variable
section is represented by the actual lyrics. The flow acts as a secondary rhythm that
changes based on the flow and style of the rapper.
An
Analysis
of
the
Rhythm
in
“Push
It
Along”
by
A
Tribe
Called
Quest
A Tribe Called Quest first released “Push It Along” in 1990 and it was featured in
their debut album People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. The piece is
in common time and displayed in the example below are two measures that are
repeated continuously throughout the song. In the appendix, I have inserted the
complete transcription of riff; however, for my purpose, I have only included the
rhythmic parts.
Figure 3. Transcription of A Tribe Called Quest, “Push It Along”
Transcription by Kyle Adams

13. 13
The two staves represent the rhythmic voices of the clicks and drum set, composed of
cymbals (top line), snare drum (middle line), and bass drum in the (bottom line). I
have highlighted the 16-beat cycles in red boxes that are simple additive rhythms that
emphasize each beats individually and have no syncopation. Enclosed by the blue
boxes are the two 16-beat cycles played by the bass drum. These cycles are repetitive
and highly syncopated, as they were in both the Kaolack and Ceebu Jën rhythms. The
accents of this piece are on the 2nd
and 4th
beats, highlighted, in Fig. 3, by the green
oval shapes. The accents emphasize both the length and speed of each measure, two
vital elements that need to be emphasized in rap music so that the rapper can follow
with the same beat with his or her lyrics.
An
Analysis
of
the
Rhythm
in
“Changes”
by
Tupac
Shakur
The second rap song I will be analyzing is Tupac Shakur’s single, “Changes”,
released in 1998. The piece is in common time. Displayed in the example below are
two measures containing the drumbeats that are repeated continuously throughout the
song. In the appendix, I have inserted the complete first page of the score; however,
again, for my purposes, I have only included the rhythmic parts.
Figure 4. “Changes” by Tupac Shakur, Score – Drum Beat
Here, just like in “Push It Along”, I have included the rhythmic section composed of
the cymbals (top line), snare drum (middle line), and bass drum (bottom line). I have
also enclosed the bass drum in a blue box because of its similarity to the bass drum in
“Push It Along” and the Kaolack and Ceebu Jën rhythms. Again, the bass drum voice
is composed of two measures of 16-beat cycles. There is a dislocation of the bass,
which is essentially means that it is heavily syncopated, and contrasts the accented
beats played by the snare drum. The accents on the 2nd
and 4th
beats are highlighted, in
Fig. 4, by the green oval shapes. Again, there is this constant emphasis on both the 2nd
and 4th
beats, maybe to serve as reference points for both instrumentalists and
vocalists, and to facilitate time keeping.

14. 14
An
Analysis
of
the
Rhythm
in
“In
Da
Club”
by
50
Cent
The third song I will be analyzing is 50 Cent’s hit single, “In Da Club”, released in
2003 and featured in his debut album Get Rich Or Die Tryin’. The piece is also in
common time. Displayed in the example below are two measures, which are a little
different from the previous ones I have inserted because they show the lyrical rhythm.
I have included this section of the piece because it demonstrates how these sabar
rhythms can not only appear in the fixed section of the rap songs, but also the variable
section, which I have established is the delivery of the lyrics. In the appendix, I have
inserted the complete first page of the score; however, again, for our purposes, I have
only included the rhythmic parts.
In these two extracts there are two things that stand out. The first is the top stave,
displaying the rapper’s rhythmic line. It is identical to the Mbalax Nder’s line in the
Ceebu Jën rhythm described earlier. The line is composed of two 8-beat cycles of the
2+3+3 form of additive rhythm. The stave below the rapper’s line indicates the piano
line and shows some of the chords being played. In the recording of this song, you
can hear clapping on the 2nd
and 4th
beats. The clapping is not transcribed, but is
audible in the recording within the spaces indicated by the green ovals, and persists
throughout the entire song.
Figure 5. Extracts from “In Da Club” by 50 Cent

15. 15
Conclusion
In my work, I illustrated that although the sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, are
not the exact same as those contained within the three sample rap songs, there is a
definite correlation between the rhythmic sensibilities demonstrated by the two. This
shows that the Wolof rhythmic tradition indeed acted as somewhat of a base upon
which rappers could construct their own rhythm. There is no doubt that the rhythms
could have changed from the period of slavery and the beginning of rap music, and in
fact, it must also be noted that rap music has also been influenced by many other
cultures and their music. The Wolof rhythmic tradition is an example of the general
African rhythmic practices, but more advanced and definitely seems to have been
influential in the formation of the rap genre.
To analyze this correlation even further there would have needed to be more sample
rap songs from the earlier rap scene. Unfortunately, it is not that easy to find the
scores of these earlier rap songs that marked the beginning of this music genre. It
would have also been interesting to see what other music had influenced the beat
behind rap, and analyze the rhythm as we did for the sabar rhythms. Overall, I can
say that these sabar rhythms did influence rap rhythm greatly, both in the drum’s
rhythm and the rapper’s lyrical rhythm; however, we must keep in mind, that the
correlation is only relative and there are many different factors that have contributed
to the making of rap music.

16. 16
Works
Cited
Musical
Compositions
Jackson, Curtis; and Andrew Young, Michael Elizondo. “In Da Club.” Get Rich Or Die
Tryin’. Australia: Universal Music Corp, 2003.
Shakur, Tupac: and Bruce Hornsby, Deon Evans. “Changes.” Greatest Hits. Los Angeles:
Songs of Universal, Inc., 1998.
Books
Chang, Jeff. "Introduction by DJ Kool Herc." Introduction. Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A
History of the Hip-hop Generation. New York: St. Martin's, 2005. Print.
Fernando, S. H. "Oral Funk Journalism." The New Beats: Exploring the Music, Culture, and
Attitudes of Hip-hop. New York: Anchor /Doubleday, 1994. Print.
Finn, Julio. "The Drum." The Bluesman: The Musical Heritage of Black Men and Women in
the Americas. New York: Interlink, 1992. Print.
Haskins, James. "The Beginning." One Nation under a Groove: Rap Music and Its Roots.
New York: Jump at the Sun/Hyperion for Children, 2000. Print.
Herc, Kool DJ. "Introduction." Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-hop
Generation. By Jeff Chang. New York: St. Martin's, 2005. Print.
Keyes, Cheryl L. "Introduction." Introduction. Rap Music and Street Consciousness.
Urbana: U of Illinois, 2002. Print.
Keyes, Cheryl L. "Preface." Preface. Rap Music and Street Consciousness. Urbana: U of
Illinois, 2002. Print.
Ogg, Alex, and David Upshal. "Block Party Days." The Hip-hop Years: A History of Rap.
London: Channel 4, 1999. Print.
Pinn, Anthony B. Noise and Spirit: The Religious and Spiritual Sensibilities of Rap Music.
New York: New York UP, 2003. Print.
Tang, Patricia. "The Rapper as Modern Griot: Reclaiming Ancient Traditions." Hip Hop
Africa: New African Music in a Globalizing World. By Eric S. Charry. Bloomington:
Indiana UP, 2012. Print.

17. 17
E-­‐books
Tang, Patricia. Masters of the Sabar: Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal. Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 2007. E-book. 19 Nov. 2014.
Images
Adams, Kyle. Adams, Example 3. Digital image. Music Theory Online. Society for Music
Theory, May 2008. Web. 22 Aug. 2014.
Journal
Articles
Novick, Adam. "Sabar Drumming: Puzzling Rhythms From Senegal." DRUM! Magazine.
Enter Music Publishing, Inc., 14 Mar. 2012. Web. 17 June 2014.
Salaam, Mtume Ya. "The Aesthetics of Rap." African American Review 29.2, Special Issues
on The Music (1995): 305-06. JSTOR. Web. 17 June 2014.
Websites
Dr.Tom. "African Drums & Drumming." African Drums & African Drumming. N.p., n.d.
Web. 04 Sept. 2014.
Khameneh, Caroline. "Class Experience and African Music Overview." Web log
post. African Music. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 17 June 2014.
Recordings
Jackson, Curtis. By Michael Elizondo and Andrew Young. In Da Club. 50 Cent. Universal
Music Corp., 2003. MP3.

18. 18
Appendix
Complete Transcription of the riff in “Push It Along” by A tribe called Quest
Complete Score of “In Da Club” by 50 Cent (pg. 1)

19. 19
Complete Score of “Changes” by Tupac Shakur (pg.1)