The file contains the Resistance of Electricity and how it affects greatly on the technology that we are using nowadays. Together with some calculation and trivia, I hope will enjoy watching and learning the presentation

1. RESISTANCE
Prepared by: Carl Louise Capute BSIE 4A-D

2. Introduction
What controls the amount of current that is produced when a
specific voltage is applied? Why does the current flow more quickly
through some circuits than others? The solutions are found in the
fact that the circuit's elements create resistance to charge passage
in the system. Resistance, often known as opposition to the flow of
charge across an electrical circuit, is measured in ohms and is
denoted by the Greek letter omega (Ω).
(Resistance symbol and notation)

3. Resistance
The supplied electrical energy is converted into heat, which raises the
temperature of the electrical component and surrounding medium, by this
opposition, which is mostly caused by collisions and friction between the free
electrons and other electrons, ions, and atoms along their route of motion.
Low resistance levels are found in conductors, and high resistance qualities are
found in insulators. Conductors allow a large flow of charge with little external
pressure.

4. Resistance: Circular Wires
The resistance of any material is due primarily to four factors:
1. Material
2. Length
3. Cross-sectional area
4.Temperature of the material

5. Resistance: Circular Wires
The first three elements are related by the following basic equation for resistance:

6. Resistance: Circular Wires
The Greek letter rho (r), which serves as the resistivity's symbol, and its measurement in CM-/ft are
used to identify a material. For a range of popular materials, Table 3.1 provides its value at 20°C
(68°F, or room temperature).

7. Resistance: Circular Wires
Due to the fact that the resistivity is in the numerator of Eq. As illustrated in Fig. 1 for two
conductors of the same length, according to equation (3.1), the higher the resistivity, the
larger the resistance of a conductor. 3.3(a). Additionally, as length is a factor in the numerator
of Eq, the longer the conductor, the higher the resistance. (3.1). Recall Fig. 3.3(b). Finally,
because the area of a conductor occurs in the denominator of Eq, the resistance decreases
with increasing conductor area. (3.1). Recall Fig. 3.3(c).

8. Circular Mils (CM)
In Eq. (3.1) R=P(1/A), the area is
measured in a quantity called
circular mils (CM). It is the
quantity used in most commercial
wire tables, and thus it needs to be
carefully defined. The mil is a unit
of measurement for length and is
related to the inch by:

9. Circular Mils (CM)
Sometimes when you are working with conductors that are not circular, you will need
to convert square mils to circular mils, and vice versa. Applying the basic equation for
the area of a circle and substituting a diameter of 1 mil results in
from which we can conclude the following:

10. EXAMPLES:

11. WIRETABLES
The primary purpose of the wire table was to harmonize the size of wire
produced by manufacturersTypically, it contains information like the cross-
sectional area in round mils,weight per 1000 feet, ohms per 1000 feet at 20°C,
and diameter in milsTable 3.2 provides the American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes
for solid wire.copper wire in a circle. a column listing the highest permitted
currentAccording to the National Fire Protection Association, in ampereshas
additionally been included.

12. WIRETABLES
To be able to look uponAmericanWire Gage sizes, you can
look in https://meters.co.uk/american-wire-gauge-awg-cable-
conductor-sizes/ to further see more gauges of wires.

13. EXAMPLES

14. RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS
• Metric units are used in the design of resistive elements for a variety of
applications, such as thin-film resistors and integrated circuits.amounts of Eq.
(3.1). The resistivity would be calculated in SI units asOhm-meters, square
meters, and meters are the unit of measurement. The centimeter is typically
used since the meter is typically too large of a unit of measurement for most
uses.The outcomemeasurements for Eq. consequently, (3.1)

15. EXAMPLES

16. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• Conductors: have a generous number of free electrons, and any introduction of thermal energy
will have little impact on the total number of free carriers.
• Semiconductors: an increase in temperature imparts a measure of thermal energy to the system
that results in an increase in the number of free carriers in the material for conduction. The result
is that for semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the
resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients.
• Insulators: an increase in temperature results in a decrease in the resistance of an insulator. The
result is a negative temperature coefficient.

17. EXAMPLES

18. Temperature Coefficient of
Resistance
• There is a second popular equation for calculating the resistance of a
conductor at different temperatures. Defining
as the temperature coefficient of resistance at a temperature of 20°C, and R20
as the resistance of the sample at 20°C, the resistance R1 at a temperatureT1
is determined by

19. Temperature coefficient of resistance
for various conductors at 20°C.

20. PPM/°C
Resistance varies with temperature for resistors in the same way
that it does for conductors. Typically, the specification is given in
parts per million per degree Celsius (PPM/°C), giving a clear
indication of the resistor's degree of temperature sensitivity. an
amount of 5000 PPM for resistors is regarded as high, while 20 PPM
is quite low. In equation form, the change in resistance is given by:

21. EXAMPLES

22. SUPERCONDUCTORS
• More interest is being shown in
superconductor. This development
comparable to the release of
semiconductor devices like the
transistor (to wireless technology,
electric lighting, or tube replacement.
Superconductors are conductors of
electric charge that, for all practical
purposes, have zero resistance.

23. TYPES OF RESISTORS
• A. Fixed Resistors:
Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in
either of two groups: fixed or variable. The most
common of the low-wattage, fixed-type resistors is
the film resistor shown in Fig. 3.16. It is constructed
by depositing a thin layer of resistive material
(typically carbon, metal, or metal oxide) on a
ceramic rod.

24. TYPES OF RESISTORS
• B. Variable Resistors:
As their name suggests, variable resistors have a terminal
resistance that can be changed by turning a dial, knob, screw,
or other device that makes sense for the application.
Although they can have two or three terminals, the majority
have three. The two- or three-terminal device is typically
referred to as a rheostat if it is employed as a variable
resistor. The three-terminal device is generally referred to as
a potentiometer if it is used to modulate potential levels.

25. COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR
VALUES
A wide variety of resistors, fixed or variable, are large
enough to have their resistance in ohms printed on the
casing. Some, however, are too small to have numbers
printed on them, so a system of color coding is used.
For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six bands may
be used. For the four-band scheme, the bands are
always read from the end that has a band closest to it,
as shown in Fig. 3.25. The bands are numbered as
shown for reference in the discussion to follow.

26. COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR
VALUES
The first two bands represent the first and second
digits, respectively. They are the actual first two
numbers that define the numerical value of the
resistor. The third band determines the power-of-ten
multiplier for the first two digits (actually the number
of zeros that follow the second digit for resistors
greater than 10 ). The fourth band is the
manufacturer’s tolerance, which is an indication of
the precision by which the resistor was made.

27. CONDUCTANCE
We may determine how well a material conducts electricity by calculating the reciprocal of the material's
resistance. The amount is known as conductance, denoted by the letter G, and is expressed in siemens (S)
(see Fig. 3.31). The conductance formula is
A resistance of 1 M is equivalent to a conductance of 106 S, and a resistance of 10 is equivalent to a
conductance of 101 S. The larger the conductance, therefore, the less the resistance and the greater the
conductivity. In equation form, the conductance is determined by

28. EXAMPLES

29. OHMMETERS
The ohmmeter is an instrument used to perform the following tasks and several other
useful functions:
1. Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements.
2. Detect open-circuit (high-resistance) and short-circuit (low resistance) situations.
3. Check the continuity of network connections and identify wires of a multilead
cable.
4.Test some semiconductor (electronic) devices

30. OHMMETERS
• Never hook up an ohmmeter to a live circuit! The reading will be meaningless, and you may
damage the instrument. The ohmmeter section of any meter is designed to pass a small
sensing current through the resistance to be measured. A large external current could damage
the movement and would certainly throw off the calibration of the instrument.
• Never store a VOM or a DMM in the resistance mode. If the two leads of the meter touch, the
small sensing current could drain the internal battery. VOMs should be stored with the
selector switch on the highest voltage range, and the selector switch of DMMs should be in
the off position

31. THERMISTORS
• The thermistor is a two-terminal
semiconductor device with temperature
sensitivity in its resistance. One who
represents character may be seen in Fig.
3.35 with the device's visual icon. Take
note of the curve's nonlinearity and the
decrease in resistance from
approximately. For a 20°C to 100°C
temperature increase, the ratio is 5000 to
100. The A reduction in resistance as
temperature rises suggests a negative
temperature coefficient.

32. PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
• Two-terminal semiconductor technology
underlies the photoconductive cell. Whose
final resistance depends on how severe the
situation wasIts exposed surface is
illuminated. The energy state of the
surface electrons and atoms grows as the
intensity of the applied illumination
increases, with an increase of "free
carriers" as a result and a corresponding
lowering of resistance

33. VARISTORS
• Varistors are nonlinear, voltage-
dependent resistors used to suppress
high-voltage transients, as a result
of which they can be limited by
certain traits. The potential voltage
across a sensitive device's terminals
or system. The qualities shown in
Fig. are typical. 3.39(a), as well as a
measure of linear resistance for
comparative purposes.

34. APPLICATIONS
• Electric Baseboard Heating Element:
One of the most common applications of resistance is in
household fixtures such as toasters and baseboard heating
where the heat generated by current passing through a
resistive element is employed to perform a useful function.
Recently, as we remodeled our house, the local electrician
informed us that we were limited to 16 ft of electric
baseboard on a single circuit. That naturally had me
wondering about the wattage per foot, the resulting current
level, and whether the 16-ft limitation was a national
standard

35. APPLICATIONS
• Dimming Control in a Car
The main component in controlling the brightness of a car's dashboard and accessories is a two-point
rheostat. The fundamental network is shown in Fig. 3.41 at average current and voltage levels. in the
event thatswitch is closed (often by removing the light switch's controldashboard), current is created
via the 50 rheostat before going tothe dashboard's many lights (such as the panel lights and
ashtrayradio display, glove compartment light, and light).

36. MATHCAD
• Mathcad 12 is a piece of mathematical
software used throughout the text.to
describe the various operations that a
math software program can carry out.
The software program is not required in
order to proceed. With the subjects
discussed in this text. The coverage
begins with a very basic level. Level only
to introduce the package's scope and
power. Mathcad is not necessary to
complete any of the exercises that appear
at the end of each chapter.