1. Running Head: REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 1
A Review of Self-directed Learning With Workplace Applications
Cammie Coffey
HRDV 3309
Topic: Self-Directed Learning
Date:10/09/2016

2. REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 2
Review of Self-directed Learning With Workplace Applications
“Is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in
diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material
resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and
evaluating learning outcomes." (Knowles, 1975, p.18)“
It is not surprising that adult education and human resource development value self-
directed learning (SDL) methods. People naturally want to learn, and SDL is one of Knowles'
assumptions on "androgagy" (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner's, 2007, p. 84).This study will
review sources that discuss topics on SDL goals and processes, self-directed leadership
development (SDLD), enhanced memory, organizational support, and SDL and its affect on
teamwork. This study will also discuss applications for SDL in the workplace.
Summary of Source 1
Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner's (2007) book "Learning in Adulthood" discusses
SDL goals and processes. The three goals described include: (1) preparing the learner to be more
"self-directed in their learning," "(2) to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed
learning, and (3) to promote emancipatory learning and social action as an integral part of self
directed learning" (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner's, 2007, p. 107). This means that
cognitive development and emotional maturity are required before some individuals are ready for
SDL, the learner will have to change their basic assumptions and worldview, and they will
become a lifelong learner. The summarized process includes taking responsibility and initiative

3. REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 3
in deciding what to learn, deciding how to learn, and deciding how to evaluate the learning
experience. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner's,2007)
Summary of Source 2
Nesbit's (2012 ) article described and explored the self-directed leadership development
(SDLD) framework, in which "self-directed learning is a conscious and intentional process of
learning by leaders" (Nesbit, 2012, p.205). The article describes the challenge of creating
learning experiences for leadership, when the problems are ever changing and evolving with
their environment. The SDLD framework challenges them to become more flexible, "increase
their behavioral repertoire," and to take control over what they learn in an experience (Nesbit,
2012, p.205).
Nesbit (2012) discussed the challenges of SDLD. The first is that leaders are more
focused on operational performance than learning. The second challenge is the cognitive effort
needed for SDL. The third challenge is the lack of guidance in the HRD field. The solution is to
focus on three "metaskills—skills that allow for the development of other skills" (Nesbit, 2012,
p.209). Nesbit (2012) describes these metaskills as (1) "Self-Reflective Practice" (p.209), (2) "
Managing Emotional Reactions to Feedback" (p.212), and (3) " Self-Regulation" (p.214).
Practical implications for human resource development (HRD) include encouraging self
development, self regulation, and encourage reflection.
Summary of Source 3
Markant, DuBrow, Davachi, & Gureckis, (2014) focused on self-directed study and its
effects on episodic memory. They discussed the results of previous testing done by Voss,
Gonsalves, et al. because SDL is often related to better long-term memory retention. Markant, et

4. REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 4
al. (2014) reproduced the same type of experiments, where "the goal was to memorize the
identities and spatial locations of 25 objects that were hidden in a 5×5 grid" (p.1215). The
current study duplicated the results that self-directed study improves "recognition memory and
spatial memory," but this study also questioned whether or not timing and the amount of control
the individual was given in the test would affect this phenomena (Markant, et al., 2014, p. 1217).
Experiments not only demonstrated an advantage for SDL, it also showed that timing did not
affect the ability to memorize. Giving the individual more control over decisions and the
selection process did improve recognition and spatial recall.
Summary of Source 4
This next study by Boyer, Artis, Fleming, & Solomon, (2014) examined sales people and
the importance of perceived organizational support when it comes to SDL. Not only does it help
the sales people reach goals by creating a better learning environment, but it also makes the
company a more appealing to work with by other organizations in the industry. A company that
encourages learning appears to have more knowledgeable employees. This study discussed
induced and synergistic SDL projects, where the induced ones are mandatory participation and
the synergistic are voluntary. In this study, surveys were conducted and "structural equation
modeling (SEM)" was used for the analysis process (Boyer, et al., 2014, p. 70). The findings
showed that a perceived organizational support enhances the individuals effort, makes them
proactive in problem solving, and makes them more willing to participate in both induced and
synergistic SDL projects.

5. REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 5
Summary of Source 5
Smyth & Perkins' (2011) research focused on whether or not SDLs could perform and
work as part of a team as successfully as students who were taught in the traditional way. In this
study, individuals learned Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) on their own and then
progressed to working as part of a two person team. The trial had "three possible courses: (1)
HeartCode BLS System, (2) BLS anytime, or (3) traditional instructor-led training" (Smyth &
Perkins, 2011, p.242). The first had 1 hour online cognitive training. The HeartCode BLS
System had 1 hour of cognitive training online and 40 minutes of hands on practice with voice
activated manikins. The BLS anytime also utilized the same online training, but the hands on
training was with a DVD and blow up manikins. The traditional method had a teacher, lasted 4-
5 hours and had groups of 6 students. All the students were tested to see how well they could
switch from single to dual operator, and the tests showed that the traditional students did not do
as well. There were a lot of variables that could have affected these outcomes, like differences in
curricula. But the test did show that SDL is a cheaper and less time consuming option, and it
does not prevent learners from working well as part of a team.
How Self-Directed Learning Can Be Used/Applied in the Workplace
There are many ways SDL can be useful to a workplace, but it is important to consider
the environment and support system for maximum benefits. The environment must encourage
learning on all levels, from executives to employees. The support enhances the willingness and
successfulness of the individual and it creates a company image that includes adaptability and
willingness to change. So the first step in using SDL in the workplace is creating a "learning
organization" (Merriam, et al., ,2007, p. 42).

6. REVIEW OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING 6
The second step would be to prepare the individuals to become autonomous learners, who
initiate and control the learning process. Workplaces may need to provide coaching to help some
individuals with cognitive development, or to benefit people with different learning styles or
learning barriers. Coaching may also be necessary if the SDL project has a degree of difficulty or
multiple steps that can appear confusing or daunting. A word of caution would be that too much
coaching and assistance may reduce the retention levels benefits of SDL (Markant, et al., 2014).
Eventually the employees will become "lifelong learners" and require less assistance (Merriam,
et al., 2007, p.47).
The last step would be deciding which types of SDL practices to use. Since learning
should be transferred throughout the organization, there are many ways for HRD to provide these
types of opportunities. First, new employees could take online SDL workshops that provide
transformational learning opportunities that encourage attitude changes, team mentality, and to
teach "what actions are appropriate in particular situations to implement change" (Merriam, et
al., 2007, p.135). A blog type SDL experience may be good for leadership development.
Blogging or interacting with other managers can allow leaders to share their experiences with
other leaders, compare outcomes and figure out solutions, plan for emergencies, and provide a
support system for HRD (Nesbit, 2012 ). The last suggestion would be for the company to offer
online SDL solutions on topics like new languages, customer service improvements, safety and
sanitation improvements, new products of equipment usage, and self improvement. It is
recommended that the company encourages learning, but allow the individual to make choices
on when, where and how they improve themselves. This will enable willingness better overall
performance.

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References
Boyer, S. L., Artis, A. B., Fleming, D. E., & Solomon, P. J. (2014). The Impact of Perceived
Organizational Support on Self-Directed Learning in Sales Training. Journal Of
Marketing Channels, 21(2), 65-76.
Knowles M. (1975). Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York,
NY: Associated Press;18.
Markant, D., DuBrow, S., Davachi, L., & Gureckis, T. M. (2014). Deconstructing the effect of
self-directed study on episodic memory. Memory & cognition, 42(8), 1211-1224.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A
Comprehensive Guide (3rd Ed). San Francisco, CA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Nesbit, P. L. (2012). The Role of Self-Reflection, Emotional Management of Feedback, and
Self-Regulation Processes in Self-Directed Leadership Development. Human Resource
Development Review, 11(2), 203-226.
Smyth, M., & Perkins, G. D. (2011). Self-directed learning: Does it affect team
performance?. Resuscitation, 82(3), 241-242.
Straka, G. A. (2000). Conditions promoting self-directed learning at the workplace. Human
Resource Development International, 3(2), 241-251.