The document discusses pragmatics and discourse in new Englishes. It begins by defining pragmatics as the study of language in use and how context impacts meaning. It then examines differences in discourse patterns across cultures and varieties of English. Specifically, it notes that discourse in new English literatures often incorporates local speech patterns and translates idioms/proverbs to represent cultural contexts accurately. The use of English thus varies across contexts in ways that reflect different social and historical experiences.

1. Pragmatics and Discourse
By
Bushra Tabassum

2. Introduction
• Till now we have concentrated on the main
structural differences between New English's
varieties.
• But varieties of English also differ from each
other in terms of the function.
• As new structure in a particular New English
may serve a new function or add a certain
things which are not generally found in other
varieties.

3. Cont...
• In this chapter we will mainly describe the
differences at the sentence level,
• before proceeding to speech acts and genres
found in New Englishes.
• Such linguistic diversity generally reflects
differences in social arrangements, cultural
practices and historical processes to which
language use is closely tied.

4. Conti..
• Main goal is to view that how the new
English's have altered the syntactic and
discourse of standard English to recreate
maintain the varieties faithfully.
There are some main points regarding
pragmatics and discourse.
• Pragmatics of syntactic forms
• Pragmatics of discourse particles
• Discourse across culture
• Discourse context in new English literature

5. • Then if we talk about the Pragmatics of
syntactic forms
• In this we will see that different tag questions
and auxiliries are traditionally used as
discourse markers.
• And we will see that how they are performing
the pragmatic function.

6. • There are five pragmatic functions performed
by tag questions.
• The information
• The confirmation
• The punctuation tag
• The temporary tag
• The aggressive tag

7. • there is variation in the use of tag question
across the varieties.
• You are going home is’nt it ?
• Tags are linguistics devices governed by
politeness.
• They play positive poltness function.

8. Auxillaries
• Tags are not only the linguistics form found in
new English's which exibits the different
grammer of culture.
• Auxilries may serve new new or additional
pragmatic function.
• Indian English use the model axillaries may to
express positive politeness.
• May is used in informal indian english.
• Singapore eglish uses would as a polite form

9. Then we will see The pragmatics of
discourse particles
• Like there are some Discourse particles which
are playing pragmatic function in new
englishes.
• Discourse particles such as
• So, of, of course, actually, anyways, after all,
by and large
• They help the hearer to interpret the message,

10. Conti..
• There are many terms in different verities of
English like in Singaporean and Indian English's
are having there own discourse particles.
• La and what are used in Singaporean English
• They carried a wide range of function.
• La occur with interactional acts such as requests,
promises suggestions etc.
• They share the element of solidarity and are
absent where power is present.
• And are also absnet in formal context of speech
and writing.

11. • Only is used in Indian English to present the
focus
• It is used for emphasizing.
• Indian English uses the pragmatic particle
only.

12. Discourse across the culture
• In this section we see that how culture is
playing a role in different discourse patterns.
• It is not the language but also the culture
which leads to different discourse patterns.

13. Conti..
• If two persons are taking a one situation
differently, then it reside in their culture
context. That each interpret differently.
• Difference in meaning is the different the
result of difference in cultural resources used
for linguistics interpretation.
• dealing with language in use and the contexts
in which it is used

14. Discourse context in new English's
literature
• If we will talk about the discourse context in
new English literature we will see that
• In earlier time most of the literature from the
colonies struggle to copy metropolitan themes
and style.
• But in new varieties they represent different
ways of saying ad meanings.
• If we talk about the literary texts of Africa and
Asia

15. Conti..
• Mostly writers are not representing the
English but the native variety by means of
English.
• And they do not follow the exact structural
pattern.
• Like in literature local proverbs and local
speech patterns are used

16. Pragmatics
• dealing with language in use and the contexts
in which it is used

17. What is Discourse?
• Discourse is:
• language above the sentence or above the
clause
• Johnson defines as :
Discourse as an institutionalized way of speaking that
determines not only what we say and how we say it,
but also what we do not say which can be inferred
from what we say.

18. Structural and functional definitions
of discourse
• Structural or textual definition of discourse:
Discourse is a particular unit of language
(above the sentence).
• Functional definition of discourse: Discourse
is a particular focus of language use.

19. Kinds of Discourse
• Spoken Discourse: A spoken discourse is any discourse
that is verbalized or spoken.
• It is also generally referred to as speech.
• Written Discourse: A written discourse is any discourse
in which the thoughts of the producer or represented
graphically on a surface such as paper and other media.
• Interpersonal Discourse: Interpersonal discourse is
the kind of discourse that involve two or more person .
• One of the commonest form of interpersonal discourse is a
conversation.

20. What is Pragmatics?
• The branch of linguistics dealing with language
in use and the contexts in which it is used
• Including such matters as deixis
• The taking of turns in conversation
• Presupposition and
• implicature

21. Pragmatics
Implicature:
It is an additional conveyed meaning called an
implicature.
Two types of implicatures:
• Conventional implicatures: do not require any
particular context in order to be understood.
• Conversational implicatures: are context
dependant what is implied varies according to the
context of an utterance.

22. Pragmatics
• There are four conversational maxims which help us
to realize the implicit meaning if an utterance:
• Maxim of Quantity:
One of the maxims in which the speaker has to be
neither more nor less informative than is necessary.
• Not more not less information.
• Maxim of Quality:
Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say
something if you lack adequate evidence.

23. Pragmatics
• Maxim of Relation:
Be relative.
One of the maxim in which the speaker has to
be relevant.
• Maxim of Manner:
One of the maxim in which the speaker is to be
clear, brief and orderly.

24. Deixis
pointing via language using a deictic
expression e.g “this” and “here”
Person Deixis: Forms used to point to people e.g
“me” and “you”
Spatial Deixis: Forms used to point to location e.g
“here” and “there”
Temporal Deixis: Forms used to point to location in
time e.g “now” and “then”

25. Presupposition
• Something the speaker assumes to be the
case prior to making an utterance.
• To be assumed by the speaker to be already
known to the addressee.
• For Example:
• The King of France is bald.
• The King of France is not bald.
• Is the King of France bald?
• If the King of France is bald, he should wear a hat in the
winter.

26. Tag Questions
• Tags have been traditionally analysed as
utterance-final discourse markers
• In standard English tag questions are formed
by a rule which inserts a pronominal copy of
the subject after a appropriate model auxiliary
for example
• Maria said she will come today, didn’t she?

27. Cont...
• There are difference forms of tags e.g
canonical tags and invariant tags
• Simple tags are called canonical tags e.g isn’t it
• Invariant tags are such as isn’t that so? Or
don’t you think?
• Tags express certain attitude of speakers
towards what is being said in the main clause

28. pragmatic functions of tag questions
• Algeo identifies five pragmatic functions of tag
questions in English
• Informational tags (used to make a genuine
request for information)
• Confirmatory tags (also called facilitative tag,
use to invite agreement from hearer)
• Punctuation tags (used for emphasis)

29. Cont...
• Peremptory tags (used to end a discussion)
• The aggressive tags (openly hostile)
• Informational tag and Confirmatory tags show
politeness
• Punctuation, Peremptory and aggressive tags
show impoliteness

30. Cont...
• There is variation in the use of tag questions
across Englishes
• In Indian English there are two types of
syntactic variants
• One exhibits the syntax of canonical tags and
the other does not

31. Undifferentiated tags
• Undifferentiated tags signals important social
meaning
• These tags play an important pragmatic role in
the Indian English speech community
• These tags are linguistic devices governed by
the politeness principle of non-imposition
• They serve positive politeness functions

32. Cont..
• For example;
• Unassertive/informal situation
• They said they will be here, isn’t it?
• Assertive/formal
• They said they will be here, didn’t they?

33. Cont...
• Undifferentiated tags are common in new
Englishes
• In Hong Kong English they are often used
when seeking confirmation and involvement;
mainly positive politeness functions
• Speakers of colloquial Singapore English tags
do not vary as they do in standard verities

34. Cont..
• They use either the tag isn’t it or is it
• There is a research conducted in 1994 in
Singapore and asked by the students that “is
it” can be used in the place of “isn’t it” or not
and the sentence was, you want go Singapore
swing, is it?
• They answered that it is used

35. Discourse Across Culture

36. Discourse
Discourse – written and spoken
Discourse
Speaker/
writer
Hearer/ reader
Context

37. Definitions of ‘discourse’
(a) A set of terms, metaphors, allusions,
ways of talking, references and so on,
which constitute an object
(b) A to-and-fro of exchanges in talk (or text)
that performs social actions

38. Objects of discourse
• Discourse’ refers to any utterance which is
• meaningful.
• These texts can be:
• - written texts
• - oral texts (‘speech’/’talk’)
• - mixed written/oral texts (e.g. Internet chat)
• Discourse does not depend on the size of a
text

39. culture
• Culture signifies how an individual thinks, acts
and feels as member of a group and in relation
to other members of that same group.
• Thus, a circle of friends, or a business
organization is defined by its own unique
culture of attitude and relationship.
• In this sense,cultures are differentiated by
their purpose, values, membership, history,
etc.

40. Discourse across Culture
• English discourse across cultures is that there
is a strong relationship between the forms of
English and its speaker s’perceptions of reality
and the nature of their cultural institutions
( Kachru).
• It is the cultural context not English language
which leads to different discourse
patterns.(kachru)

41. Conti…
The interactional exchange, between a Chinese
businessman and an American businessman
with the same business interests, exemplifies
the role played by the context of culture .
• Mr Richardson (American businessman)
• Mr Chu (Chinese businessman)

42. Conti..
• Mr Richardson: By the way, I’m Andrew Richardson. My
friends
• call me Andy. This is my business card.
• Mr Chu: I am David Chu. Pleased to meet you ,Mr Richardson.
This is my card.
• Mr Richardson: No, no. Call me Andy. I think we’ll be doing a
lot
• of business together.
• Mr Chu: Yes, I hope so.

43. Conti..
They left the exchange with very different
impressions of the situation: Mr Richardson
was “pleased” that he got off to a good start,
whereas Mr Chu was “uncomfortable” and
feels that he will have difficulty working with
Mr Richardson.
• The interpretation of exchange different
because of their different cultural context.

44. Conti..
• Mr Richardson uses the given name, Hon-fai,
as an involvement strategy of politeness in a
bid to establish solidarity.
• But Mr Richardson does not know is that the
Chinese have a complex structure of names,
which depends on situations and
relationships; in initial business relationships,
the given name is never used, especially by a
stranger.

45. Conti..
• Mr Chu thus feels quite uncomfortable. He
instead prefers to use independence strategies
of politeness, realised as the address form of
Title-Family Name.
• The difference in meaning in the above
exchange, results from differences in cultural
resources used for linguistic interpretation.

46. Conti..
• Variety of the English is not only influenced by
the conventions of native language and
culture but also have the knowledge of
addresses language and culture.

47. Discourse context in new english
literature

48. Discourse context
• Discourse: any instance of language use.
• context: the circumstances that form the
setting for an event, statement, or idea.
• The use of language in the relationship
between the speaker and the utterance, on
the particular occasion of use.

49. New English literature
• The study of New English Literatures is
concerned with colonial and postcolonial
writing which emerged in former British
colonies such as: parts of Africa, Australia,
Bangladesh, Canada, Caribbean countries,
India, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Pakistan,
Singapore, islands in the South Pacific, and Sri
Lanka

50. Discourse context in new english
literature
• Earlier literature was with metropolitan style
and theme.
• Topic of new English literature is vast.
• It represents different ways of saying and
meaning.

51. Conti..
• literary texts do not always represent the
exact structural patterns of New English
speech. Rather they are authorial
representations of such speech, which may
vary in accuracy and degree of literary license
taken.
• some authors do not intend to represent
English but the indigenous language(s) of a
territory via the medium of English.

52. Conti..
• The other strategic difference in organizational
design of literary texts in New Englishes lies in the
linguistic transfer from mother tongue patterns.
• “Ayah Shouts: put him down at once, oye,
badmash!”………………………………...
• Duffa ho! Go! She
says”……………………………………………………………….
• Who is going to rule once we get
swaraj?”……………………………………………

53. Example discussed by Achebe
• I want one of my sons to
join these people and be
my eyes there. If there is
nothing in it you will come
back. But if there is
something then you will
bring back my share. The
world is like a Mask,
dancing. If you want to see
it well, you do not stand in
one place. My spirit tells me
that those who do not
befriend the white man
today will be saying ‘had we
known’ tomorrow.
• I am sending you as my
representative among
those people – just to be on
the safe side in case the
new religion develops. One
has to move with the times
or one is left behind. I have
a hunch that those who fail
to come to terms with the
white man may well regret
the lack of foresight.

54. Conti..
• The first passage expresses the local rural
sensibilities by the use of local proverbs and
other culture-bound speech patterns,
expressing a local Nigerian discoursal identity.
• Achebe concludes that though the material is
the same, ‘the form of the first is in character,
and the other is not’.

55. Conti..
• Kachru (1986) notes that the production of
difference in English discourse across cultures
has more to do with the use of native similes
and metaphors, the translation
(‘transcreation’) of proverbs and idioms, the
use of culturally dependent speech styles and
the use of syntactic devices.

56. Example from Raja Rao’s Kanthapura
• ‘Today,’ he says, ‘it will be the story of Siva and
Parvati.’ And Parvati in penance becomes the
country and Siva becomes heaven knows what!
‘Siva is the three-eyed,’ he says, ‘and Swaraj too is
three-eyed: Self-purification,Hindu-Moslem unity,
Khaddar.
• [Glosses: swaraj ‘self rule, self sufficiency,
independence’; khaddar ‘hand-woven cotton
cloth – a symbol of swaraj or
care, devotion and labour]

57. Conti..
• literary creativity in English discourse across cultures
takes different structural-textual forms
• because literary texts as discourse reflect the
underlying thought patterns, social norms, cultural
practices, attitudes and values of the people writing,
as well as represented in, the texts.
• The connection between text and context not only
results in cultural authenticity, but also enables a
new way of meaning making, of representation that
is different from traditional canons;

58. • Creative writers in experimenting with english
language draw n their native sensibilities and
inherited form of culturally authorize
discourse patterns this is not always
appreciated by outside readers and critics.