Sangam literature

1. Pre Historic and Historic Period
Earliest to 300 BC
Sangam Age
300 BC – 300 AD

2. • The history of Tamil Nadu goes back to the
early stone age. The region of Tamil Country
has been under continuous human habitation
since prehistoric times.

4. Pre-Historic Period
• Till the second century B.C., the upland portions
of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the
nuclear zone were inhabited by people who are
called megalith builders.
• They are known not from their actual settlements
which are rare, but from their graves called
megaliths.
• These are called megaliths because they were
encircled by big pieces of stone which contained
not only skeletons of the buried people but also
pottery and iron objects.

6. Cont…
• However compared to the number of agricultural tools that
were buried, those meant for fighting and hunting is larger
in number.
• It shows that megalithic people did not practice an
advanced type of agriculture. The megaliths are found in all
upland areas of the peninsula, but their concentration
seems to be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
• Their beginnings can be traced to circa 1000 B.C., but in
many cases the megalithic phase lasted from about the
fifth to the first century B.C. The Cholas, Pandyas and
Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned in the Asokan inscriptions
were probably in the late megalithic phase of material
culture. By the third century B.C., the megalithic people
had moved from the uplands into fertile river basins and
reclaimed marshy deltaic areas.

7. Cont…
• Under the stimulus of contact with the elements of material culture
brought from the north to the extreme end of the peninsula by
traders, conquerors and Jaina, Buddhist and some Brahmana
missionaries, they came to have social classes, they came to
practice wet paddy cultivation and founded numerous villages and
towns.
• Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the Deep
South known as Tamilakam or Tamizhakam became extremely
important from the fourth century B.C. The route to the south
called the Dakshinapatha was valued by the northeners because
the south supplied gold, pearls and various precious stones.
• Flourishing trade with the Roman Empire contributed to the
formation of the three states respectively under the Cholas, Cheras
and the Pandyas. These southern kingdoms would not have
developed without the spread of iron technology which promoted
forest clearing and plough cultivation.

9. The Sangam Age
• The Sangam Age in Tamil country is significant
and unique for its social, economic, religious
and cultural life of the Tamils.
• There was an all round development during
this period.
• The Sangam literatures as well as the
archaeological findings reveal these
developments.

10. • 'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word
"Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an
association.
• The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets
and bards, who flourished in three different
periods and in different places under the
patronage of the Tamil kings.
• According to tradition, the first Sangam was
founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at
Thenmadurai (South Madurai).

11. • The seat of the second Sangam was Kapatpuram,
another capital of the Pandyas. It was attended by
several poets and produced a large mass of literature,
but only Tolkappiyam (the early Tamil grammar) has
survived.
• The seat of the third Sangam was the present Madurai.
It has also produced vast literature, but only a fraction
of it has survived. It is this fraction which constitutes
the extant body of Sangam literature.
• The Age of the Sangam is the age to which the Sangam
literature belonged. The Sangam literature constitutes
a mine of information on conditions of life around the
beginning of the Christian era.

12. Sangam Polity
• From the earliest times Tamilaham had known only three major
kingdoms – the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The
Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that
their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
• He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, which may suggest
some matriarchal influence in the Pandya society. In the Major
Rock Edict II Asoka mentions of the three kingdoms – Pandyas,
Cholas and Cheras as neighbours.
• The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea contains the early
epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil country,
where he is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states
– Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However, the chief source for the
Sangam period is the Sangam literature.

14. • The Sangam literature speaks highly of three
South Indian kingdoms- Chola, Pandya and
Chera.
• The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the
Pandas and the Chera combined with were
known as Tamilakam, or the Tamil realm.

16. The Three Sangam Kingdoms
Kingdoms Capital Emblems Famous sport
Cholas Uraiyur, Tiger Puhar(Kaveripatta
m)
later Puhar
Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow Muzris, Tondi,
Bandar
Pandyas Madurai Carp (Fish) Korkai, Saliyur

17. Flag

18. Kingdoms with flags

19. The Cholas
• The homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta
and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and
Tiruchirappalli.
• They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the
far south with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their
capital. Its ugly capital was Uraiyur
Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D.
the power of the Chola's big gain to decline
mainly because of the rise of Pallavas on one
hand and the continuous war waged by the
Pandyas and the Cheras on the other.

20. Cont…
• It seems that in the middle of the second century
B.C. a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri
Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years.
• A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the
second century A. D. with their famous king
Karikala which means, ‘The man with the charred
leg.’
• He was a contemporary of the Chera king
Perunjeral Adan. Karikala was a very competent
ruler and a great warrior.

21. Cont…
• He defeated the Chera king Perunjeral. One of his early
achievements was the victory at Venni, 15 miles to the
east of Tanjore; his victory meant the breakup of the
widespread confederacy that had been formed against
him.
• He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of
embankment along the Kaveri River. This was built with
the labour of 12,000 slaves who were brought as
capitves from Sri Lanka. Puhar was a great centre of
trade and commerce, and excavations show that it had
a large dock. The Cholas maintained an efficient navy.

22. Cont…
• Under Karikala’s successors the Chola power rapidly
declined. Two sons of Karikala ruled from two different
capitals – the elder from Uraiyur and the younger one
from Puhar. The last great Chola ruler after Karikala was
Nedunjelian who successfully fought against the Pandyas
and the Cheras both, but was ultimately killed in battle.
• Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras and the
Pandyas, extended at the cost of the Cholas. What
remained of the Cholas power was almost wiped out by
the attacks of the Pallavas from the north.
• The fortunes of the Cholas suffered a serious setback,
when, according to a tradition recorded in Manimekalaia
good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the
sea in terrific tidal waves, during the reign of the later
Chola king Killivalavan.

24. The Pandyas
• The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its
capital at Madurai, compromised the modern
districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and
southern parts of Travancore.
• The Pandyas were first mentioned by
Megasthanese. According to the Magasthanse,
the kingdom was once ruled by a woman.
• According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were
independent people living beyond the South than
border of the Maurya Empire.
• The greatest Pandya king was Nedunchezhian
who defeated the Chera and Cholas.

25. Cont…
• The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi who is
mentioned in the Sangam text as a great conqueror. The
most reputed Pandyan ruler was Nedunjhelian, who ruled
from Madurai and was a great poet.
• According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjhelian, in a fit of
passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the execution of
Kovalan who was accused of theft of the queen’s anklet.
When Kovalan’s wife proved her husband’s innocence, the
king was struck with remorse and died of shock on the
throne.
• The Pandyan kings profited from trade with the Roman
Empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.
The Pandyan port Korkai was a great centres of trade and
commerce, another port was Saliyur. The brahmanas
enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya kings
performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of the
Christian era.

28. The Cheras
• The earliest reference to the Chera
(Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan
inscriptions.
• It compromised the mordern districts of
Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its
Capital was Vanji.
• The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the
red or good Chera. He is credited with having
invaded the north and crossed the river
Ganga.

29. The Cheras
• The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to
the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.
• It included the narrow strip of land between the
sea and the mountains and covered portions of
both Kerala and Tamilnadu.
• In the early centuries of the Christrian era, the
Chera country was as important as the country of
the Cholas and the Pandyas. It owed its
importance to trade with the Romans.
• The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris
identical with Cranganore in the Chera country to
protect their interests. It is said that they also
built there a temple of Augustus.

30. • The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous
fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas. One of the
earliest and better known Chera rulers was Udiyanjeral
(A.D. 130). The titles Vanavaramban and Perunjaran
Udiyan are applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar
in Puram.
• The son of Udiyanjeral was Nedunjeral Adan who won
a naval victory against some local enemy on the
Malabar Coast, and took captive several Yavana
traders. He won victories against seven crowned kings,
and thus reached the superior rank of the adhiraja.

31. • He was called “Imayavaramban”, he who had the
Himalayas as his boundary’. He fought a war with the
contemporary Chola king in which both the monarchs
lost their lives and their queens performed Sati.
• According to the Chera poets their greatest king was
Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera. He routed his
rivals and established his cousin securely on the
throne. It is said that he invaded the north and crossed
the Ganga. But all this seems to be exaggerated. Pattini
cult, that is the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife,
was started by him.

32. • Senguttuvan was succeeded by his half-brother
Perunjeral Adan (180 A.D.), who was a contemporary
of the great Chola monarch Karikala. We learn from the
poems Puram and Aham, that while fighting against
the Cholas in the battle of Venni, Perunjeral Adan
received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace
by starving himself to death on the battlefield.
• After the second century A.D. the Chera power
declined, and we have nothing of its history until the
eighth century A. D. The fame of the Cheras lies in the
liberal patronage to Tamil poets and promotion of
trade with Romans. The Chera had a number of good
ports along the western coast such as Tondi and Musiri
or Muziris (Muziris was a great centre of Indo-Roman
trade). The capital of the Cheras was Vanji.

36. Period of Sangam literature
• The earliest script that the Tamils used was the Brahmi
script. It was only from the late ancient and early
medieval period, that they started evolving a new
angular script, called the Grantha script, from which
the modern Tamil is derived.
• Some of the contents of the Sangam literature are
corroborated by the writings of some Greek and
Roman classical writers of the first and second century
A. D, leading us to fix the period of Sangam age
roughly between third century B.C. to third century
A.D.
• So most of the Sangam literature also must have been
produced during this period. The Sangam literature
was finally compiled in its present form in circa A.D.
300-600.

37. Sangam Literature
• According to Prof. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Sangam literature
which combines idealism with realism and classic grace with
indigenous industry and strength is rightly regarded as
constituting the Augustan age of Tamil literature. It deals
with secular matter relating to public and social activity like
government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture etc.
• Among the poets and thinkers of the Sangam age Tolkappiyar,
Tiruvalluvar, lllango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar,
Paranar, Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar and a few others are
outstanding. Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil
works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the ten poems (Pattupattu),
the eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and the eighteen minor
works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the three epics. The chief
merits of the sangam works is their absolute devotion to
standards and adherence to literary conventions.

38. Earliest Tamil Works
• Tolkappiyam is the oldest extant Tamil
grammar written by Tokkappiyar (one of the
12 disciples of Saint Agastya.)
• It is divided into three major parts, each
consisting of nine iyals (sub-parts) and has a
total of 1612 sutras.
• Other earliest Tamil works were the Agattiyam
(a work on grammar of letters and life) by
Saint Agattiyar, Pannirupadalam and the
Kakkipadiniyam.

39. Ten Poems (Pattupattu)
• Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar),
Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattattanar),
Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by
Mangudi Marudam), Pattinappalai (by Kannan),
and other works, come in this category.
• The poetry in the Pattupattu was divided into
two main groups:
• Aham (deals with matters strictly limited to one
aspect of subjective experience viz., love) and
• Puram (deals with matters capable of
externalization or objectification).

40. Eight Anthologies Ettutogai
• 1. Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudalur Kilar, consists of 500
erotic poems.
• 2. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists of love
poems.
• 3. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love.
• 4. Kurunttogai has 400 love poems.
• 5. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of kings. The
Nandas and Mauryas are referred in one of the poems.
• 6. Kalittogaicomprises love poems.
• 7. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods.
• 8. Padirrupattu is a short collection of 8 poems in praise of
the Chera Kings.
The eight anthologies (Ettutogai) also are in two groups, the
Aham and the Puram.

41. Eighteen Minor Works
(Padinenkilkanakku)
• These works are called ‘minor works’ because
the poems in these are shorter in form than
those in the Ettutogai and Pattuppattu.
• The most important among these are the
Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar (known as the Bible of
Tamil Land’, it is a compound of the
Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the
Kamasutra), the Naladiyar, the Palamoliby
Munnururai Araiyar, the Acharakkovaietc.

42. The Epics
• The epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and
Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the
Christian era.
• 1. Silappadikaram was written by Mango Adigal
(grandson of Karikala, the great Chola King) in the
second century A.D. It is a tragic story of a merchant,
Kovalan of Puhar who falls in love with a dancer
Madhavi, neglecting his own wife, Kannagi, who in the
end revenges the death of her husband at the hands of
the Pandyan King and becomes a goddess.
• It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or Pattini cult that is
worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. There is also a
reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on
the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi temple, the
Goddess of Chastity, by Chera king Senguttuvan.

43. Cont…
• 2. Manimekalai was written by poet Sattanar. It is the
story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan, and
Madhavi of the earlier epic. The main aim of this epic
seems to be to expound the excellence of the Buddhist
religion through the medium of the travails of
Manimekalai consequent on the loss of the city of
Puhar when the sea eroded into the coast. This epic is
the only important ancient work which gives glimpse of
the development of the fine arts in the Sangam age.
• In both these epics, a good deal of social and historical
information is found
• 3. Sivaga Sindamani, written by Tiruttakkadevar a Jaina
ascetic, is the story of Sivaga or Jivaka

44. Sangam Administration
• The king was the very centre and embodiment of
administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan,
Korravan or Iraivan. Though hereditary monarch was
the prevailing form of government, disputed
successions and civil wars were not unknown. The court
of the crowned monarch was called avai.
• The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu) was
accepted and acted on. The King’s birthday (Perunal)
was celebrated every year. Kings assumed several titles.
For example, the Pandyas were known as Minavar,
Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.etc
the Cholas called themselves Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan
and Killi, and the Cheras had titles like Vanavar, Villavar,
Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on.

45. Cont…
• The royal emblem of the Pandyas was the carp
(fish), the bow of the Cheras and of the Cholas
was the tiger. The sabha or manram of the king in
the capital was the highest court of justice. The
king was assisted by a large body of officials, who
were divided into five assemblies:
• (1) Amaichchar or ministers,
• (2) Purohitas or priests,
• (3) Senapati or military commanders,
• (4) Dutar or envoys and
• (5) Arrar or spies.

46. Provincial and Local Administration
• The entire kingdom was called mandalam. The Chola
mandalam, Pandya mandalam and the Chera
mandalam were the original major mandalam. Below
the mandalam was a major division, nadu (province).
The ur was a town which was variously described as a
big village (perar), a small village (sirur) or an old
village (mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal
town and Puharwas the harbour area.
• The administration of nadus was generally carried on
by hereditary chiefs. The village was the fundamental
unit of administration which was administered by local
assemblies called manrams.

47. Revenue administration
• The commonest and possibly the largest source of revenue
was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the agricultural
proudce, claimed and collected by the king,is not specified.
The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as
measure of grain. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax
was a variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of
collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar.
• Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (irai)
constituted a considerable part of royal resources. Trade
local and long-distance, constituted a very important
source of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties were ulgu
or sungum. The duties to be paid to the king were generally
known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.

48. Military Administration
• Apparently out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army
and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of
elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an
important part in war. Horses were imported by sea
into the Pandyan kingdom.
• The institution of virakkal or nadukul (hero-stone),
which was a practice of erecting monuments for the
dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent at
that time. The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram
was also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great
tree in his palace as a symbol of power.

49. Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly
tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal)
and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their
respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and
honey collection.
• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-
rearing and dealing with dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt
manufacturing.
• Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

50. Social Divisions
• The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly
divided into several groups. In the beginning of the Sangam
Age, the Tamil society was not organized on the basis of the
Vedic caste system, namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Sudras.
However, the earliest of the Sangam literature, Tolkappiyam
refers to the four divisions prevalent in the Sangam society
namely, Anthanar, Arasar, Vaislyar and Vellalar, it may be
said that this classification roughly corresponds to the Vedic
Social division.
• Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of
ancient Tamil tribes such as Thudiyan, Pannan, and
Kadamban. These divisions indicate the complex social
structure prevalent in the Sangam Age.

51. Food and Hospitality
• Rice was the staple food during the Sangam
period. The food-habits varied among the people
according to their economic status.
The rich had their feasts every day, while the
poor took simple food.
• Chewing betel leaves was most common among
the people. Offering betel leaves to guests had
become a social formality.
• Hospitality was a special virtue of the Sangam
Tamils. The Sangam literature describes how
hosts had always been waiting to welcome
guests.

52. Dress and Ornaments
• The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress.
It varied according to their status. The rich wore silk
and fine cotton garments. The middle class people
generally wore two pieces of clothes made of Cotton.
Women paid much attention to their hairstyle. They
used flowers like Jasmine to decorate their plaits and
tufts. Both men and women used perfumes made of
sandal and flowers.
• The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments
worn by both men and women. They were made of
gold, silver, pearls and precious stones. Poor people
used ornaments made of shells and beads.

53. Religion
• The people worshipped Murugan, Tirumal,
Balram and Indra in the temple known as nagar,
koil, kottam, purai or devalayam. The worship of
Vedic deities were also not uncommon. The
worship of kannagi was common.
• The Vedic practice of Yagna, sraddha and pinda
were practised by the Sangam people.
Varanasystem took roots even in the south. The
influence of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikas was
paramount.

54. • We have already referred to the five Gods worshipped
in the five different regions. In addition to these Gods,
the Sangam Tamils worshipped their ancestors. They
erected memorial stones called as Nadukal, They were
also known as Hero Stones or Veerakkal. Such stones
were erected in memory of those who died in battles.
• The Sangam people had also worshipped the natural
objects. For example, the Sun. Moon.. Earth, rivers and
mountains became their objects of worship. Neem tree
was considered sacred.

55. • The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or
Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of
Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals
relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam
literature. He was honoured with six abodes known as
Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period
were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and
Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was
significant in the Sangam period.
• The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery
shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with
legends inscribed on them were found in different
parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind of worshipping the
deceased has a great antiquity.

56. Position of Women
• There is a plenty of information in the Sangam
literature to trace the position of women during the
Sangam age. Women poets like Avvaiyar,
Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this
period and contributed to Tamil literature.
• The courage of women was also appreciated in many
poems. Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest
virtue of women. Love marriage was a common
practice.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
However, the life of widows was miserable. The
practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata
of society. The class of dancers was patronized by the
kings and nobles.

57. Fine Arts
• The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in fine
arts. They developed the concept of Muthamizh iyal, Isai and
Naatakam. The Paanars or bards were experts in music. They
moved from place to place, singing bards in praise of kings
and local chieftains. Later, the Tamils developed musical notes
or swarams. The musical tune was known as Pann.
• Several musical instruments were also used. Shells, drums,
flute and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan had been
hailed as Ezhisai Vallavan. The art of dancing was encouraged
during the Sangam period.
• Attam and Koothu were performed during festivals.
Tholkaappiyam refers to Naatakam or Drama. The art of
painting was also known to the Sangam Tamils. They
celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam and Indra
festival were some of them.
• The indra festival had been celebrated annually at Puhar. The
dance and music had its religious connotation from the
earliest times.

58. • Poetry, music and dancing were popular among
the people of the Sangam age. Liberal donations
were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and
nobles. The royal courts were crowded with
singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar.
• They were experts in folk songs and folk dances.
The arts of music and dancing were highly
developed. A variety of Yazhs and drums are
referred to in the Sangam literature. Dancing was
performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most
popular entertainment of the people.

59. • Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an
affluent economy during the Sangam Age.
Agriculture, industry, trade and commerce
made the Sangam Tamils almost self-
sufficient. Exports were also made to the
other parts of the world.
Economy of the Sangam Age

60. • Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop. Ragi,
sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of
fruits were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the
Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya
country.
• The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. Paddy was the
main crop. Millet, grams and sugarcane were also cultivated. Irrigation
through rivers, tanks and wells was used for cultivation.
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include
weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of
ornaments using beads, stones and ivory. There was a great demand
for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak
during the Sangam period. Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk
clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention the cotton clothes
as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake. There was a great
demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.

61. Occupation
• Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts
of the Sangam period. Uraiyur and Madurai were the
main centers for the manufacture of cotton fabrics. The
weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes.
The word Kalingam refers to very nice garments.
• The Sangam literature refers to clothes, which were
thinner than steam. Silk clothes were also produced in
the Tamil country. Other craftsmen like the carpenter,
blacksmith, goldsmith and potter had practiced their
respective occupations.
• Fishing and hunting had also remained as important
occupation during this period.

62. Trade and Commerce
• In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of trade was
followed. Generally, the people exchanged their commodities with
their neighbors. For example, the people of Kurinji region
exchanged honey with the people of Neydal region for getting fish
and salt. Likewise, the Mullai people gave their milk products to
Marudham people to get rice from them.
• Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up rapidly. Local
markets came up and they were known as Angadis. Both Day
Market (Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar (Allangadi) existed in port
towns. The Pattinappalai refers to their existence at Puhar. Goods
from distant places were brought to these markets. The expansion
of trade led to the growth of towns. Moreover, export of goods to
other countries had increased. (It will be described in the next
chapter).

63. • Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on
in the Sangam Age. The Sangam literature, Greek and Roman accounts and
the archaeological evidences provide detailed information on this subject.
Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place
to place. Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.
• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed
importance. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade,
as big ships entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of
commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign
trade. Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like
Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu. They
reveal the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman traders in the
Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics,
spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory
products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were
the chief imports.

64. Cultural Life
• The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life.
Their interests in education, literature, music, dance, drama
and festivals have been described in the Sangam literature.
• Education and Literature
• Education was common for all, men and women, rich and
poor and for different communities. Parents attached
importance to the education of their children. The
Purananooru describes that it is the duty of the father to
make his children learned.
The bulk of the Sangamn literature written by about 500
poets indicates the importance given to education. The
poets of the Sangam period played vital role in the social
and culture life of the people.

65. Recreation
• The people of the Sangarn Age had spent their time in
excellent ways of recreations. Poetry, music, dance and
drama were significant. The Sangam poets made the
kings as well as the people through rendering beautiful
verses. The bards made merry in the king’s courts.
• The rulers and nobles patronized them with liberal
donations. Hunting was another important recreation.
The young and energetic took part in duals, while the
old played indoor games like dice. Women and girl
children had their own games to play and evinced
much interest in swimming.

66. End of the Sangam Age
• Towards the end of the third century A.D., the
Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The
Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about
two and a half centuries.
• We have little information about the Kalabhra
rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent
during this period.
• The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and
Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the
Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and
established their rule.